Registered for transniissian by post as a magazine.

TRANSACTIONS

AND

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

VOL. LI

(New Issue)

EDITED ANP PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD
OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE

ISSUED 1st SEPTEMBER, 1919

latUington, ^.%.

MARCUS F. MARKS. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
William Weslet and Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London W.C.

MEMORANDUM FOK AUTHORS OF PAPERS.

1. All papers must be typewritten, unless special permission to send
in written papers lias been granted by the Editor for the time being.

2. The author sliould read over and correct the copy before sending
to the Editor of the Transactions.

3. A badly arranged or carelessly coaiposed paper will be sent back
to the author for amendment. It is not the duty of an editor to amend
either bad arrangement or defective composition.

4. In regard to underlining of words, it is advisable, as a rule, to
underline only specific and generic names, titles of books and periodicals,
and foreign words.

5. In regard to specific names, the International Rules of Zoological
Nomenclature and the International Rules foi- Botanical Nomenclature
must be adhered to.

6. Titles of papers should give a clear indication of the scope of the
paper, and such indefinite titles as, c.y., " Additions to tbe New Zealand
Fauna " should be avoided.

7. Papers should be as concise as possible.

8. Photographs intended for reproduction should be the best pro-
curable prints, unmounted and sent flat.

9. Line Drmvings. — Drawings and diagrams may be executed in line
or wash. If drawn in line — i.e., with pen and ink — the best results are
to be obtained oidy from good, firm, black lines, using such an ink
as Higgin's liquid India ink, or a freshly mixed Chinese ink of good
quality, drawn on a smooth surface, such as Bristol board. Thin,
scratchy, or faint lines must be avoided. Bold work, drawn to about
twice the size (linear) of the plate, will give the best results. Tints or
washes may not be used on line drawings, the object being to get the
greatest contrast from a densely black line drawn on a smooth, white
surface.

10. Wo,sh Draiviugs. — If drawing in wash is preferred, the washes
should be made in such water-colour as lamp-black, ivory black, or
India ink. These reproduce better than neutral tint, which inclines too
much to blue in its light tones. High lights are better left free from
colour, although they may be stopped out with Chinese white. As in
line drawings, a tine surface should be used (tlie grain of most drawing-
papers reproduces m the print with bad effect), and well-modelled
contrasted work will give satisfactory results.

11. Size of Draioings. — The printed plate will not exceed 7^ in. by
4-| in., and drawings for plates may be to this size, or preferably a multiple
thereof, maintaining the same proportion of height to width of plate.
When a number of drawings are to appear on one plate they should be
neatly arranged, and if numbered or lettered in soft pencil the printer
will mark them permanently before reproduction. In plates of wash

iv Memorandum for Authors of Papers.

drawings, all the subjects comprising one plate should be grouped on the
same sheet of paper or cardboard, as any joiuing-up shows in the print.
Text figures should be drawn for reduction to a width not exceeding
4^ in. If there are a number of small text figures they should be drawn
all for the same reduction, so that they may be arranged in groups.

12. Majis. — A small outline map of New Zealand is obtainable at a
low price from the Lands and Survey Department, Wellington, upon
which details of distribution, &c., can be filled in according to the
instructions given above for line drawings.

13. Citation. — References may be placed in a list at the end of an
article or arranged as footnotes. The former method is preferable in long
papers. In the list references are best arranged alphabetically, reference
in the text being made by writing after the author's name, as it occurs,
the year of publication of the work, adding, if necessary, a page number,
and enclosing these in parentheses, thus : " Benham (1915, p. 176)."
Example of forms of citation for alphabetical list : —

Benham, W. B., 1915. Oligochaeta from the Kermadec Islands, Trans. N.Z, Inst.,

vol. 47, pp. 174-85.
Park, J., 1910. The Geology of New Zealand, Christchurch, Whitcombe and

Tombs.

When references are not in alphabetical order the initials of the author
should precede the surname, and the year of publication should be placed
at the end.

14. In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Governors,
authors are warned that previous publication of a paper may militate
against its acceptance for the Transactions.

15. In ordinary cases twenty-five copies of each paper are supplied
gratis to the author, and in cases approved of by the Publication Com-
mittee fifty copies may be supplied without charge. Additional copies
may be obtained at cost price.

T K A N 8 A C T I () N S

AND

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

VOL. LI

(New Issue)

EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD
OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE

ISSUED 1ST SEPTEMBER, 1919

Wellington, f.l.

MARCUS F. MABK8, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
William Wesley and Son, -28 Msskx Street, Strand, London W.C.

ALEXANDER HORSBURGH TURNBULL.

\Fnce p. rii.

OBITUARY.

ALEXANDER HORSBURGH TURNBULL. 1868-1918.

Alexander Horsburgh Turxbull was born in Wellington on thr I Ith
September. I8(i8. and was educated at Duhvicli ("olleae, England.

HivS father was Mr. Walter Turnbull. one of the founders of the linn
W. and G. Turnbull and Co. (now Wright. Stephenson, and Co.) : and on
his entering on a nicrcantile career Mr. Turnbull joined his fathers
London offic<', returning to Wellington in 1890. For luanv vears he was
associated with the late Mr. Nicholas Reid in the nianagenient of the
business of W. and (i. Turnbull and Co., but owing to failing health he
was compelled some eighteen months before his death to relinquish most ot
his business activities retiring altogether in October. 1917. The whole
of his activities and the considerable means i-esulting from his business
were then devoted to the augmenting of his collection of books of history,
travel, and literature. He became one of the best-known book-collectors
of New Zealand, and his library was known far beyond the limits of New
Zealand. He devoted himself largely to the gathering of a representative
collection of accounts of voyages to the islands of the Pacific, and the
histories of those islands, including .Vustralia and New Zealand : and thi'
collection gathered by him is reputed to be one of the best in the world.
Jt includes not only works in English, but many in Dutch, French, .Spanish.
German, and other languages, the Dutch being especially valuable. This
portion forms, however, only about one-fourth of the library, the rest
being devoted to histories of early colonization in various countries, and
to poetry and general literature. Besides having copies of every obtain-
able edition of the better-known poets, the library is rich in works of the
minor poets. His collection of autographs, letters, ])oems, logs, and journals
is most representative : and he secured many rare editions l)oth of well-
known and out-of-the-way writers, so that the library contains wealth
for the historian and for the lover of [)ure literature as well as for the
bibliophile. He also specialized in New Zealand and Australian paniphlets,
original drawings, and sketches of early New Zealand and Australia, maps,
charts, photographs, &c.

The library contains over 32,000 bound volumes, thousands being
almost jewel-like in their artistic binding, the work of such well-known
firms as Zaehnsdorf and Riviere, of London : thousands of unbound
|*amphlets, leaflets, maps, etchings, drawings, and prints, all of inestimable
value from an historical point of view.

Whilst Mr. Turnbull was a member of the Wellington Philosophical
Society from 1897 to the dav of his death, he was not an active member
so far as the reading of papers was concerned. He was, however, inde-
fatigable in the gathering together of this s])lendid collection, which he com-
menced whilst still in London, and the luunber and extent of manuscript
notes in the various volumes show that he was a wide and unremitting
reader who loved his books and knew them thoroughly. Apparently his
sole object in making the collection, apart from present pleasure, was the

viii Ohituart/.

eventual presentation of it to the Dominion. Not only did he at all times
place the library at the disposal of students and researchers, but by his
knowledge of the contents of the books lie was able to render them valuable
assistance, and never refused to do so. Whilst, therefore, he did no
original creative work, he did what was even more important — gathered a
wealth of material that will give inspiration for original work for many
vears to come. This wealth he bequeathed to His Majesty the King in
trust as a reference library to be housed in Wellington. The bequest is
the most valuable by which the city of Wellington has ever benefited, and
one of the most valuable ever made in the Dominion.

Mr. TurnbuU possessed an extensive collection of Maori carvings,
weapons, im])lements, articles of clothing, and other objects of ethnological
value, and this collection he presented to the Dominion Museum in
January, 1913. His desire for anonymity was respected, but it is due to
his memory that this shoidd now be known.

He was also a prominent member of the New Zealand Academy of Fine
Arts, and had gathered a valuable collection of pictures by New Zealand
and other artists. Many of these pictures, which deal with matters of
historic interest to New Zealand and Australia, passed with his bequest
and are now housed in the library which is known after the donor as the
Turnbull liibrary

Mr. Turnbull died in Wellington on the 28th June, 1918. He was a
Fellow of the Linnean Society and a Fellow of the Royal Geographical
Society ; and, whilst his name does not appear among the illustrious in
the world of science, the original work that will result from his labours
and pleasures of collecting will certainly enrich the world of science no
less than its sister world of literature.

Johannes C. Andersen.

Obituary. , ■ i^

HENRY SUTER, 1841 1918.

Wriii the issue (il tlic 1 wcuty-sccoiid x-oliiinc (if the Transactions a new star
ruse on the coiu'liological world. I''(ii' licic. undei- a \v,\nw liithcrto unknown,
appeared a series of excellent dcsciiptions of small land-shells, illustrated
with unusually clear and detailed drawinjrs by the same hand. In continu-
ation an account followed of the jaws and radula of various miiiute snails.
This very difficult work was beautifully done.

These contributions, signed " H. Huter,'" wen^ waiiiily welcomed by a
little band of zoological research workers in Australasia. in answer to
iiujuivies as to who our new cojurade was. Captain Hutton replied that
he was a 8wiss. lately arrived in New Zealand with introductions from
well-known European zoologists.

Henry Buter was born on the 9th March, 1841, and. was the son of a
prosperous silk-manufacturer of Zurich. He was educated at the local
school and universit\'. being trained as an anah'tical chemist. He joined
the business of his father, and for some years engaged in various commercial
pursuits.

From his boyliood he was deeply interested in natural historw He
enjoyed the friendshi]) and helj) of such men as Dr. August Forel, Professor
Paul Clodet, the brothers de Saussure, Escher von der Linth, and eapeciall}'
the well-know'n conchologist Dr. Albert Mousson.

Partly to improve his financial [)ros]5ects and jjartly lured by the
attraction of the fauna of a new country. 8utei' resolved to emigrate to
New Zealand. It was the last day of the year 1886 when with his wife
and a family of young children he landed in New Zealand.

He began his colonial career by taking u}) a remote selection in the
Forty-mile Bush, in the Wairara])a district. It is only in a story that a
middle-aged townsman can ever turn backwoodsman with success, and so
aftei' about a year Suter relinquished the hard and hopeless struggle.

At this critical time Captain Hutton, always a firm friend to zoologists,
succeeded in obtaining for his protege a ])ost as assistant manager at the
Mount Cook Hermitage. Subsequently work was available at the ( 'anter-
bury Museum. After that, at one or another of the scientific institutions
of New Zealand Suter spent the remainder of his life at congenial employ-
ment.

Henry Suter was an expert collector. He excelled in taking the
minutest land-shells, to find which requires knowledge, patience, and the
sharpest eyes. Specialists in other groups were often supplied hy Suter
with valuable material. In Switzerland he had formed a fine collection
of European land and fresh- water shells. This was afterv,'ards acquired
by the Australian Museum.

For several years Suter restricted his studies to the terrestrial and
Huviatile Mollusca of his adopted country. When his work on these
approached completion he proposed to extend his investigations to land
Mollusca abroad. Hence his scattered papers on land Mollusca from
Brazil, South Africa, and Tasmania. His friends, however, persuaded him
that science would be better served if he relinquished the foreign shells
and transferred his attention to the marine Mollusca of New Zealand.
Not only did he take this course, but he finally embraced the Tertiary
Mollusca also in his sphere of operations.
Inset i — Tran.s.

X Obituary.

Glancing over his ))aper,s, it is apparent that his writings were largely
modelled on those of his distinguished predecessor. Captain Hutton. It
was indeed fortunate that the work of the one should have succeeded that
of the other without the intervention of what the geologists describe
as an unconformity. Perhaps at no time did Suter quite realize the
undiscovered residue of the fauna on which he worked. In his various
reviews and revisions and supplements he wrote as if he had in hand if
not all at least almost all the species of the area under examination.

Patience, perseverance, and concentration, rather than any great breadth
of view, were his characteristics. His magnum opus, the Manual of ihe
Nev^ Zealand MoUnsca* was approached by a whole quarter-century of
study and labour.

It was the late Mr. .Vugustus Hamilton who planned the Manual, and
obtained from the Government the means for its production.

A com])etent critic wrotef of this magnificent volume that it made an
extraordinary advance in Antipodean conchology. The nomenclature of
the subject was raised to a modern standard, so that by its guidance any
one can now correctly name the shells of New Zealand. Suter needs no
other eulogy than his Manual.

After the Manual was completed he was engaged l)y the Geological
Survev to describe collections of Tertiary Mollusca gathered by the
Department. Gn this he was busy for the remainder of his life, and the
results are embodied in three Palaeonfological Bulletins of the Geological
Survey.

After a l)rief illness Henry Suter passed away at his home in Christ-
church on the 30th July, 1918.

Charles Hedley.

♦Published in 1913-15.

'\Journ. of Conch., vol. 14. p. 287. 1915.

HENRY SUTER.

Fuce p. x.

THOMAS WILLIAM ADAMS.

Obituary. xi

THOMAS WILLIAM ADAMS, 1841-1919.

Thomas William Adams was born in 1841 at Grravely, Cambridgeshire,
England. He was educated first at a private school in Cambridge, and
later at the British and Foreign Normal School. London. In 1862 he
arrived at Lvtteiton, and soon aftei' took up land at Gi'eendale, on the
Canterbury Plain, where he successfully followed farming for many years.
The necessity for jn-oviding shelter for his stock against the frequent
high winds showed Mr. Adams, as it did many of tlie ])ioneers, that the
planting of shelter-belts was essential. A little later tree- planting was
encouraged by the Government of the day by means of land grants in
proportion to th<' area phuited. As time went on he was not content to
])lant oidv the usual trees, but, stimulated l)y the true spirit of research,
he Sought to hnd out wh.at other trees were suited to the conditions sup-
plied by his neighbourhood — an area typical of much of the Canterbury
Plain. So it came about that before many years had passed by he had
growing upon his property pretty well all the exotic trees which at that
time had been introduced into New Zealand. This made it necessary for
him to go fartlier afield for his material, and he got into touch with some
of the most celebrated arboriculturists of the day, and also botanical
collectors in little-known regions, so that seeds of many species of trees
and shrubs came yearly into his hands.

As the years passed by, tlumks to his love for the self-imposed task
and to his superabundant energy, his Greendale estate not only possessed
fine mixed plantations, but easily the largest collection of living specimens
of exotic trees and shrubs in New Zealand, representing not unworthily
the hardy tree and shrub flora of the world. In conjunction with this
practical work Mr. Adams became a close student of the literature relating
to that class of plants which interested him so greatly, so that no one in
the Dominion possessed sucli a wide knoAvledge of the subject. Nor did
he neglect the broader aspects of his ])ursuit. Here his researches with
regard to the Monterey j)ine {Pirins rddiafa) as a timber-tree can without
hesitation be declared the most important advance which forestry has
made in New Zealand u]) to the present time, and one which will eventually
add great wealth to the country. That a tree universally despised as
economically worthless (unless for inferior firewood) should, through Mr.
Adams's experiments and unceasing advocacy of its value, come to be
recognized by all New Zealand foresters as a most important timber-tree
speaks volumes as to his acumen and careful investigations. Indeed,
Mr. Adams through his teaching regarding the value of the Monterey pine
materially modified the forestry policy of the Dominion. Here was a tree,
hardly used in the early forestry operations, whose rapidity of growth
combined with the many uses of its timber made its planting on the
largest scale a highly payable proposition easy of demonstration.

In 1897 Mr. Adams joined the Canterbury branch of the New Zealand
Institute. Though living too far from Christchurch to take an active part
in the management of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, he
attended the meetings whenever possible, read papers at times, delivered
addresses, and showed interesting exhibits from his arboretum. Several
of his papers appear in our Transactions, one in the Report of the
Australasian Association for 1904, and a number in the Journal of the
Canterbunj Agricultural and Pastoral Association. These papers form a

xii Ohitiiary.

record of most important work, and give valuable details regarding the
growth and behaviour of many species of economic trees. Apart from
their economic value they have also a considerable phytogeographical
bearing.

On account ol his valuable work in arboiicuitiiiv Mr. Adaiu,s sonic Nciiis
ago was elected an honorary member of the Hoxal Diitish Arboricultural
Society, and last year he was made a life meml)er of tlie New Zealand
Forestry League.

As a public man Mr. Adams took great interest in education. He was
for twenty -six years a member of the North Canterliurv Education Board,
and for twenty years a member of the Board of Governors of Canter burv
College. To this institution he left by will 100 acres of land at Greendale
on which are many of his plantations, and his entire general collection of
trees and shiubs. To this bequest was added the sum of £2,000. the mone\-
and the land with its collections to form the nucleus of a forestr\- scliool
in connection with Canterbury College. In 1913 he was one of the members
of the Royal Commission on Forestry, and was of the greatest service to
the Commission both from his knowledge and clear judgment.

Mr. Adams, who liad been far from well for some time, passed away
on the 1st June, 1919. His end was not altogether unexpected by his
friends, notwithstanding he had attended the Science Congress in February,
and gone to Dyer's Pass on one of the excursions. His lamented death
has left a gaj) in New Zealand science which will not readily l)e filled.
No man was more resj.'ected ; few of our members have rendered more
disinterested service to their countr^•.

L. COCKAYXK.

CONTENTS,

ANTHROPOLOGY.

PAGES

Art. XXVI. The Edible Fish, &c.. of Taupn-mii-a-Tia. By H. J. Fletcher . . 259-264

XXVIII. Some Maori Fish-hooks from Ota.iro. By H. D. Skinner .. 267-268

XXX^'I. Some Notes on thelLanoiiajic (jf the ( 'hatliam Islands. By H. W.

Williams . . . . . . . . " . . 415-422

BOTANY.

Art. IX. Contributions to a Fuller Knowledge of the Flora of New

Zealand: No. 6. By T. F. flheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S. .. 85-92

X. Some Additions to the New Zealand Flora. Bv T. F. Cheese-
man. F.L.S.. F.Z.S. .. .. .. ■ .. .. 92-95

XI. A New Variety of Ptens iiiucilriitti. By H. Carse . . . . 95

XIV. Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants. By D- Fetrie,

M.A.. Ph.D. .. .. .. ■ .. .. 106-107

XVIII. Notes on the Autecology of certain Plants of the Peridotite
Belt. Nelson : Part I — Structure of some of the Plants
(No. 2). By M. Winifred Betts. M.Sc. . . . . 136-156

XX. Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Li/ropodi/iim :
Part III— The Plasticity of the Species. By the Rev. J. E.
Holloway, D.Sc. . ." . . . . " . . . . 161-216

XXXIV. The Vegetation of Banks Peninsula, with a List of Species

(Flowering-plants and Ferns). By R. M. Laing, B.Sc. . . 355-408

XXXV. The Pronunciation of Scientific Terms in New Zealand, with

Special Reference to the Terms of Botany. By A. Wall . . 409-414

XXXVIII. A History of Hagley Park, Christchurch, with Special Refer-
ence "to its Botany. By Miss E. M. Herriott, M.A. . . 427-447

GEOLOGY.

Akt. II. The Significant Features of Reef-bordered Coasts. By W. M.

Davis . . . . . . . . . ." . . 6-30

V. On the Occurrence of Thin Bands of Marble at South Peak, near

Hampden. Otago. By J. Park. F.G.S. . . . . . . 41-42

VII. Description of a 'New Species of the 'Family Cerithiidae. By

H. Suter '. . .. ..".'. . . .". 68

XII. New Fossil Mollusca. By J. A. Bartium . . . . . . 96-100

XIH. A Fossiliferous Bed at Kawa Creek. West Coast, South of Wai-

kato River. New Zealand. By J. A. Bartrum . . . . 101-106

XV. Further Notes on the Horowhenua Coastal Plain and the Asso-
ciated Physiographic Features. By C. L. Adkin .. .. 108-118

XIX. Further Notes on the Geology of the Trelissick or Castle Hill

Basin. By R. Speight, M.Sc. .. .. .. .. 1.57-160

32413

XIV

Contents.

AiiT. A'XUI. Fauna nf the Hampden Beds and Classification of the Oamaru pages
System. By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.vS. . . . . 226-250

X.\[\'. OcciiiTcnce of Fossil Moa-bones in the Lower Wanganui Strata.

My W Marshall. M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S. . . . . . . 250-253

XW. Some New Fossil Species of Mollusca. Bv P. Marshall, M.A.,

D.Sc, F.G.S., and R. Murdoch . . " . . . . . . 253-258

XXiX. The Older Gravels of North Canterbury. By R. Speight, M.Sc,

F.G.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. 269-281

.\X.\. Hough i^idge, Otago, and its Splintered Fault-scarp. By C. A.

Cotton .. .. .. .. .. " .. 282-285

X.X.XI. Note nil the Mechanical Comjwsition of the so-called Loess at

Tiniaru. By L. J. Wild, M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S. . . . . 286-288

XXXII. The Geology of the Middle Clarence and Ure Valleys, East
Marlborough, New Zealand. Bv J. Allan Thomson, M.A.,
D.Sc, F.G.S. . . . . .". . . . . . . 289-349

XX.WTI. Report nn the Natural Features of the Arthur's Pass Tunnel.
Bv C. C. Farr, F. (J. Hogg. S. Page, L. J. Wild, and F. W.
Hilgendorf . . . . . . . . . . . . 422-426

XL. Terminology for lieak and J'"oraminal Dev'clopment in Brachio-

poda. ■ By S. S. Bnckman, F.G.S. . . . . . . 450-454

ZOOLOGY.

Art. II J. On tiic Occurrence oi Two Unusual Blood-vessels in Hyla aurea.

By W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.R.S. . . . . . . 30-34

I\'. Some Earthworms from Stejihen Lsland and D'Urville Island.

By W. B. Benham. D.Sc, F.R.S. . . . . . . 35-41

^'T. A l*reliminar\ Investigation of the Age and Manner of Growth
of Brown Trout in Canterburj', as shown by a Microscopic
E.xaminatioii of their Scales. By M. H. GodV- M.A., B.Sc. 42-67

\'III. The Structuie of Am jihllmhi rrpjiata Martvn. Bv Winifred C.

Farnie. M.A. . . . . . . ■..".. . . 60-85

X\l. Cfhid. an Abeirant Genus of the Amphipodan Family Talitridae.

By C. Chilton. M.A.. D.Sc, LL.D., F.L.S. . . . . 118-129

X\'ll. New S])ecies of Mollusca, from various Dredgings taken off the
Coast of New Zealand, the Snares Islands, and the Bounty
Islands. By Miss M. K. Mestayer .. .. .. 130-135

XXI. Notes on the Birds of South-western Otago. By A. Philpott .. 216-224

XXII. Descrii)tion of New Species of Lepidoptera. By A. Philpott . . 224-225

XXXIII. Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. By E. Meyrick, B.A.,

F.R.S. .. .. .. .. •■ ■■ 349-359

XX.XIX. A New Discoglossoid Fron from Xcw Zealand. By A. R.

McCullocli . . . . . . . . . ." . . 447^49

MISCELLANEOUS.

Airr. I. On tlic Toxicity of the Tutu Fruit and Seed. By J. Malcolm, M.D. 1-5

XX\II. To wtiat extent is Earth-rotation the Cause of the Ocean Cur-
rents? Bv A. W. Burrell .. .. .. •- 264-267

Contents.

x\

PROCEEDINGS.

Sixteenth Annual Meeting of the Board of Governors

Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute Science Congress

Annual Address of the President

Wellington Philosophical Society

Auckland Institute

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury

Otago Institute

Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute

Manawatu Philosophical Society

Wanganui Philosophical Society

Nelson Institute

l!H!)

I'Al

4r)7

472

478^85

48;"}^ 95

49(»

49H

499

-502

503

-504

505

500

50t>

507

508

508

APPENDIX.

New Zealand Institute Act and Regulations

Hutton Memorial Medal and Research Fund

Hector Memorial Research Fund

Regulations for administering the Government Research Grant

Carter Bequest

New Zealand Institute — List of ( )fificers, &c.

Roll of Members

Serial Publications received by the Library of the Institute

List of Institutions to which the Publications of the Institute are present ci I

Index

511

ill

513

jl.i

515

115

5l(j

5I()

J17

520

521-

535

>36-539

>40-

.545

-i47-

548^

LIST OF PLATES

Alexander Horsburgh Turnbbull . .

Hexrv Suter

Thomas Wflliam Adams

M. H. (JUDBY —

Plate I—

Fig. 1. Brown trout, Selwyn River

Fig. 2. '■ Disf)lacement "" scale, Rakaia River

I'late 11—

Fig. 1. Brown trout. Selwyn River
Fig. 2. Bro\vn trout, Selwjoi River

Plate III—

Fig. 1. Brown trout, Selwyn River
Fig. 2. Brown trout, Lake EUesraere

Plate IV—

Fig. I. BrowTi trout, Opihi River . .
Fig. 2. Brown trout, Rakaia River

Plate V—

Fig. 1. Brown trout, Mary mere
Fig. 2. Brown trout, Marymere

Plate VI—

Fig. 1. Brown trout. Lake Coleridge
Fig. 2. Brown trout. Lake Coleridge

J. Bartrtji —

Plate \' 11. — New fossil Mollusca

M. K. Mestayer —

Plate VIll. — New species of Mollusca . .

J. E. HoLl.nWAY —

Plate IX—

Fig. 1. Lycopodiuni carium and L. varium var. polaris
Fig. 2. L. Selago and L. ? varium . .

Plate X—

Fig. 1. Lycopodium Selago

Fig. 2. L. Billardieri. L. Billardieri vai\ gracile, and L. Phleginaria

Plate XI. — Lycopodium, cernuum

Plate XII—

Fig. 1. Lycopodiu))!, laterale and L. raniulosuin
Fig. 2. L. volubile and L. scariosum

Plate XIII. — Lycopodiu»n densum

Plate XI\^ — Lycopodium fastigiahim and L. Drum,mondii

P. Marshall —

Plate XV. — Fossils from the Hampden beds
Plate XVI. — Fossils from the Hampden beds
Plate XVII. — Fossils from the Hampden beds
Plate XVIII. — Part of femur of moa from lower Wanganui strata . .

FOLLOWS
PAfiE

vi

X
X

48
48

48

48

48
48

48

48

54

54

54
54

100

134

168
168

168
168

180

180
180

192

192

234
234
234

-Will

List of Plates.

I'. -Marshall and H. .Mckdoch —

I'late XIX. — New fossil species of Mollusca
Plate XX. — New fossil species of Mollusca
Plate XXI. — New fossil species of Mollusca

A. \V. Blirrell —

Plate XXII. — Working model showing ocean currents

H. 1). Skinner —

Plate XXIII. — .Maori Hsh-hooks from Otago

.1. A. Thomson —

Plate XXIV—

Fig. I. The suniinit of Mount Tapuaenuku . .
Fig. 2. Cliff i)f '" syenite," Mount Tapuaenuku

Ji'late XXV—

Fig. 1. View of Coverham, looking westward

Fig. 2. Junction between Clarentian and pre-Notocene

Plate XXVI—

Fig. 1. Chalk Range, from the south-south-east
Fig. 2. Ff)lding in the Sawpit Gully mudstones

Plate XXVIl. Cliffs on left bank of Isolated Hill Creek

Plate XXVIII.— Isolated Hill from Isolated Hill Creek . .

Plate XXIX—

Fig. 1. The ritlgc between the Dee and the Liniburne
Fig. 2. Great Mailborough conglomerate in the Dee Gorge

A. H. McCULLOCH—

Plate XXX. — LiujifhiKi IiamiUoni n. sp.

FOLLOWS
PAGE

. 258
. 258
. 258

266

268

308
308

308
308

316
316

316

326

326
326

448

TKANS ACT IONS.

Tl^AlSl SACTIONS

OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

Art. I. — On the Toxicity of Tutu Fruit and Seed.^

By Professor John Malcolm, M.D., Physiology Department, University

of Otago.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 10th September, 1918; received by Editors, 13th
September, 1918 ; issued separately, 14th Ulay, 1919.]

Attention has frequently been drawn to the remarkable fact, discovered
by the Maoris, that the juice of the ripe tutu-berry is harmless, while
the seed is intensely toxic.

It says much for the intelligence and powers of observation of that
race that such a discovery should have been made. Perhaps the pos-
session of subjects of experiment in the form of prisoners of war played
a part in establishing the fact. As the writer had already reported some
experiments on the toxicity of shoots a,nd leaves of Coriaria ruscifoUa
and C. angustissima, the opportunity was taken last summer of collect-
ing some of the fruit in order to test the degree of toxicity of the seed
of C. ruscifoUa, and at the same time to examine the juice. The
material was obtained by stripping the so-called " berries " off the
stalks of the racemes (sample I), and in another case (sample II) by
simply shaking twigs laden with fruit inside the calico collecting-bag.
In the latter case only the fully ripe berries dropped off.

The juice was expressed by simple pressure on the bag, and the seed
vvas obtained from the remainder by washing and kneading the bag till
the strainings were almost colourless. By suspension in water it was
then comparatively easy to separate the seed from other debris, for the
latter renjained suspended for a longer time than the seed. A consider-
able proportion of the seeds rose at once to the top and floated there,
but the bulk of them sank rapidly to the bottom. The seed was dried
in the air, and thus preserved for future use.

The Juice.

A known quantity of the juice as first expressed from the bag was
evaporated down on a slow fire. The reaction remained acid during the

* The expenses incurred in this research were defrayed out of a Government
grant made through the New Zealand Institute.

1— Trans.

2 Transactions.

evaporation. It did not seem to form a jelly at any stage in the evapora-
tion, and merely thickened to a stiff syrup. In this state it did not
grow moulds, although weaker concentrations readily did so and also
readily underwent fermentation with brewers' yeast.

After standing some weeks the syrup became crystalline, but the
crystals were mingled with so much precipitated material and pigment,
and recrystallization was so slow, that it was difficult to obtain a quantity
of the purified crystalline substance. The small quantity that was
obtained evidently consisted of glucose, as shown by its physical appear-
ance and its osazone crystals. That laevulose was also present in the
crude syrup was, however, clearly shown by the following observation :
The syrup was extracted with hot alcohol, clarified with charcoal, and
examined in the polarimeter in watery solution ; the result was laevo-
rotation ; and the solution gave very distinctly Seliwanoff's test for
laevulose. That this solution contained a mixture of dextro- and laevo-
rotatory sugars was proved by the fact that in a clear solution contain-
ing 15-5 per cent, reducing-sugar as estmiated by Allihn's method the
rotation corresponded to only 2-3 per cent, laevulose.

The syrup was also tested for galactose by the mucic-acid test, but
with negative results, so that no evidence was found of the presence of
raftinose.

The ash of the juice was found to contain a considerable amount of
iron salts.

Two experiments were made in order to test whether the concentrated
juice contained any of the poisonous properties of the other parts of the
plant. In one a known amount of the crude syrup was diluted and
administered by stomach-tube to a rabbit. No symptoms followed. The
dose corresponded to about 54 grammes of the juice as expressed from
the ripe fruit. It would correspond to about 2 lb. to a human adult.

In the other an attempt was made to extract any tutin that might
be present. The quantity used would correspond to about 1 kilogram
(2-2 lb.) of the original juice. It was covered with acetone in a stoppered
bottle, and left for three weeks, with frequent stirring and shaking. The
extract so obtained was heated to drive off the acetone, dissolved in
water, and administered to a rabbit. No symptoms resulted which could
be ascribed to tutin. The animal became practically anaesthetized and
unconscious, but recovered fully in a few hours. The symptoms were
probably due to some acetone or acetone compounds which had not been
completely removed by the heating.

From these experiments it seems extremely unlikely that the juice
contains any tutin.

Toxicity of the Seed.

After trying the hypodermic injection of solutions obtained by various
methods of extracting the tutin, the conclusion was arrived at that oral
administration of the seed would be the best in this case, as it resembled
more closely the natural way in which poisoning might occur. Accord-
ingly, since rabbits could not be induced to swallow the amount of seed
required, a watery extract containing suspended matter was made by
grinding the dose of seed in a coffee-mill, adding successive small quan-
tities of water, and straining the extracts through cheesecloth. In this
way the pulverizable part of the seed was separated from the husk, and
a muddy-looking suspension was obtained which could be administered
to the rabbit by stomach-tube. The residue left on the straining-cloth
was considerable ; in several cases where it was collected and dried it

Malcolm. — Toxicity of Tutu Fruit and Seed. 3

amounted to 50 to 60 per cent, of the whole dose of crushed seed. In
order to test whether such residues contained any appreciable amount
of tutin, a fairly large amount was dried, extracted with ether, and the
ether-soluble material administered to a rabbit in watery suspension by
stomach-tube. It produced no symptoms whatever in a dose equal to
7'5grm. of "husk" per kilogram body weight, so that the bulk of the
tutin may be supposed to have been present in the watery suspension.
When the seed was administered in this way the results shown in the
table were obtained.

Toxicity op Seed.

No.

Blaterial
used.

Dose per

Kilogram, iu

Grammes.

1

Result.

Estimated Per-
centage of
Tutin in Seed.

256c

Sample I

3-7

Death in three hours . .

016

267

270

•295

Sample II

3-7
4'0
4-3

Slight, if any, symptoms
Distinct minor symptoms
Death in about three hours

o'l4
0-16

272

4-5

Symptoms more marked than in

0-12

274
282

"

50
6-5

exp. 270
Severe symptoms, but recovered
Death in three hours . .

Oil
0-10

296

Green seed

6-0

Death in one hour and a half . .

0-125

* This animal had been used for exp. 274, and had then had its thyroid gland removed,
about four weeks before being used for exp. 29.5.

The percentages of tutin in these experiments have been calculated
from the results of previous work by Fitchett and other experiments
by the writer. The standards adopted for rabbits wei-e that a dose of
6 milligrams per kilogram produces no marked symptoms ; 6 milligrams
produces symptoms in one hour and a half, and is ultimately fatal ;
7'5 milligrams produces symptoms in about half an hour, and death
between one and two hours.

Sample I of the seed was used in only one experiment, and in that
case was more toxic than sample II. It occurred to me that this might
be due to a difference in the toxicity of green seed as compared to ripe,
for, owing to the method of collecting it, sample II contained more ripe
seed than sample I. Fortunately, although it was late in the year
(May), I was able to procure locally sufficient green berries to put the
matter to a test.

At first it seemed impossible without serious loss of time to mechanic-
ally separate the small unripe seeds from the green fleshy petals, and
after separating enough to find the percentage of seed present (18-2)
the whole unripe fruit was administered in the form of a watery
suspension. This gave the following results : 27 grm. fruit per kilogram
caused death in forty-five minutes; 14-4 grm. in ninety-five minutes;
10 grm. in two hours and a half. As 10 grm. fruit contained only
1-8 grm. seed, it followed that either the unripe seed contained a very
large amount of tutin, or that, at this stage, it was also present in
the fleshy petals. To decide this point it was necessary to obtain a
clean sample of unripe seed, and after several attempts the following
method was found to be successful : Berries were dried in air at a mode-
rate temperature and ru.bbed between the fingers ; by this means the
seeds were isolated from the remainder. The material was then put.

4 Transactions.

in small quantities at a time, mto a mixture of naphtha and chloroform
of such a specific gravity that the seeds floated while all the dehris sank,
and by skimming off and drying the seed a fine clean sample was
obtained. When administered to a rabbit this gave the result shown in
the table, exp. 296 — viz., the percentage of tutin was no greater than
the average. It follows, therefore, that at an early stage in the forma-
tion of the berry the fleshy petals contain as much tutin as other green
parts of the plant — in fact, the percentage works out to the same (0-06)
as was found m the green shoots of Goriana ruscifolia.

It would be interesting to be able to follow the fate of the tutin in
the petals. Is it transformed in situ into a constituent of the innocuous
juice, or is it transported to other parts of the plant ? If the former takes
place, one is tempted to believe a ferment might be found capable of
affecting the transformation, and such a ferment would be of value in
destroying tutin while still in the paunch of stock poisoned by tutu.
So far I have not been able to get any evidence of the presence of such a
ferment.

Effects of .\dministeation of the Oils.

Practically all parts of the tatu-plant, but especially the seeds, contain
a considerable amount of a green-coloured oil — " oil of tutu " — which was
believed by the earlier workers (Skey, Christie) to be or to contain the
poisonous principle. That the latter supposition was the correct one was
proved by Easterfield and Aston, who showed that tutin, quite apart from
the oil, was sufficiently active and abundant to account for most, if not
all. of the symptoms of tutu poisoning. The question still remained,
however, whether the oil or oils had any action which if not toxic itself
might influence the toxicity of the tutin. To throw some light on this I
used the oil as obtained by extraction v/ith mineral naphtha, which had
proved itself a good solvent for oil, while it was unlikely to dissolve tutin,
as this substance had been shown by Easterfield and Aston to be insoluble
in benzene. Chloroform extracts were also investigated, because it was
noticed that, after naphtha extraction had been carried on till the extracts
were colourless, chloroform was still able to extract some green-coloured
oil, probably another fraction of the mixture of oils present. The follow-
ing experiments were done ; —

{a.) 50grm. seed (sampL' 11) was extracted first with mineral naphtha till
the extracts were clourless, then with chloroform. The chloroform-soluble
part was mixed with a little alcohol and added to water, the result being
a fine precipitate or suspens-iou of the oil. This was administered to a
rabbit by stomach-tube. The animal became unconscious, and remained
so for about three hours. Next day it appeared to be quite well. The
symptoms were probably due to the dcse of alcohol, which unfortunately
was not measured. No distinct tutin eSects were obsserved.

{h.) A quantity of the oil extracted with naphtha was freed from all but traces of
the solvent by heating it on a water bath ; some olive-oil was added, and a
small amount of egg-white and 1 per cent, sodium carbonate. The mixture
was then emulsified by shaking, and administered by stomach-tube. No
symptoms developed beyond r -me somnolescence. The amount of green
oil given would amount to about 10 grm. = 8 grni. per kilogram for the
rabbit used.

(c.) 50 grm. seed (sample II) was extracted with alcohol, and the residue
extracted with chloroform. A considerable amount of green oil resulted.
This was boiled with about a litre of water, filtered, and evaporated down
on a water bath. More " oil " continued to separate as evaporation pro-
ceeded, and was removed by filtration. The final result was 10 c.c. of
watery extract of the "oils." Of this 5 c.c. was administered by hypo-
dermic injection to a medium-sized rabbit. No symptoms followed.

Malcolm. — Toxicitij of Tiifu F>-uif a ml Sr-eJ. 5

(d.) 20 grm. seed (sample I), previously extraofced wibn uapiitha, was extracted
with chloroform, which removed a further quantity of green oil. After driv-
ing oE the chloroform the oily residue was extracted with 100 c.c. water,
filtered, and concentrated to 10 c.c. Of this 5 c.c. given hypodermically
produced no symptoms.

The conclusion to be drawn from these experiments is that the oil,
or oils, has no toxic action. It is probable that the chloroform extracts
contained some tutin, for tutin is soluble therein to a small extent, but
the amount was either originally too small to produce symptoms or it
underwent destruction in making the hot-water extracts.

Methods of extkacting Tutin.

Although at present there seems little likelihood that the pure
substance, tutin, will ever be of any therapeutic or other commercial
value, it may be of use to workers on the subject to add a note on the
methods of extracting it. The best source of tutin is the seed — ripe or
unripe. Drying in the air probably does not lead to any loss, but
crushing and grinding, especially when combined with watery extrac-
tion and evaporation, lead to considerable loss. So far as my present
experience goes, the best method is to extract the oils from the dried
and recently crushed seed with mineral naphtha, and then extract the
residue with ether. The ether-soluble material can then be again
extracted with naphtha to remove more of the oils, and the result is an
extremely toxic material, which can be further purified as described by
Easterfield and Aston.

Summary and Conclusions.

1. No evidence was obtained of any toxic substance in the juice of
the ripe tutu-fruit.

2. The green petals of the unripe fruit contain as much tutin as other
green parts of the plant.

3. Both ripe and unripe seeds contain between O'l per cent, and 0'6
per cent, of tutin, being about double what is found in young shoots in
the natural state. (When the water percentage is taken into account
there is not much difference.)

4. The constituents of the seeds soluble in naphtha and chloroform
(oils and resins) were not found to possess any toxic action.

5. The sugars present in the juice of the berry appear to be a mixture
of dextrose and laevulose.

Eeferences.

FiTCHETT, F., 1909. Physiological Action of Tutin, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 41,
pp. 286-366. (This pap^r gives a full list of previous work on tutin.)

Malcolm, J.. 1914. Some Experiments on Tutin and Tutu Poisoning, Trans. N.Z.
Inst , vol. 46, pp. 248-54.

Transactions.

Art. II. — The Significant Features of Reef-bordered Coasts.

By W. M. Davis, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

[Read hejore the Wellington Philosophical Society, 16ih October, 1918 ; received bi/ Editor.
16th October, 1918; issued separately, Uth May., 1919.]

In recognition of the honour conferred by the New Zealand Institute in
adding me to its list of honorary members, and in return for the kind
reception given me at its meetings during my Pacific journey in 1914, I
desire to offer the following notes for publication in its Transactions, in the
hope that they may aid students of coral reefs in observing certain features
of significance in connection with the origin of those extraordinary struc-
tures. References are appended to a number of my articles, the product
of observation, reading, and refiection during five years past, where certain
aspects of the coral-reef problem are treated more fully than they can be
here.

Sea-level Coral Reefs are silent as to their Origin. — The corals and other
organisms of a sea-level reef are tru.ly of marvellous interest, and from a
zoological point of view merit all the attention they have received ; but
when a reef is examined from a geological point of view its organisms are
found to be reluctant, not to say incompetent, witnesses as to the manner
of its formation. An observer may sail along the front of a reef, wander
over its surface, or row about in its lagoon, and discover many facts regard-
ing the varied forms of life there visible, and regarding the processes,
organic and inorganic, now in operation ; but, apart from such factors as
the temperature and the depth of sea-water at which reef-building corals
grow, he can learn little, if anything, about the past conditions under which
the reef has been developed, so long as his study is directed to the reef
alone.

On atoll reefs there are, indeed, no facts visible at the surface by which
the various theories of the origin of coral reefs can be tested : it is only
from borings m sea-level atolls or from natural sections of elevated atolls
that competent testimony as to their origin can be gained. In this con-
nection it may be noted that the interpretation of the Funafuti boring
recently published by Professor E. W. Skeats, of Melbourne (1918),* gives
a much better statement of its evidence as to the origin of that atoll than
is to be found in the original report published by the Royal Society, which
was almost silent as to the meaning of the facts that it set forth so minutely.

Fringing and barrier reefs are, on the other hand, associated with the
coasts of land-masses, which may yield much information as to the past
conditions and processes of reef-formation, if the geological structure and
the physiographic development of the coastal slope are examined. For these
reasons it is to the coasts of the land-masses which fringing or barrier reefs
adjoin that attention is here chiefly directed.

Coasts of EMERaENCE and of Submergence.

The general features of coasts on which coral reefs occur — either fringmg
reefs alone, or fringing reefs in the lagoons enclosed by barrier reefs — give
helpful indications of the relative changes of level that the coasts have

* For references see p. 30.

Davis. — Signified ni Features of Ecef -bordered Coasts. 7

suffered. Some coasts have a smooth seaward slope, and consist of
imperfectly consolidated marine strata, dipping gently seaward, which have
been little eroded since their emergence from the sea in which they were
deposited : these are typical coasts of emergence. Other coasts, whatever
their structure may be, exhibit forms of subaerial erosion, such as hills and
valleys, the slopes of which appear to continue below sea-level, as if they
had been partly submerged since they were eroded : these are coasts of
submergence.

Coasts of Emergence. — Along coasts of emergence of the kind above
specified the shore-line will generally be almost rectilinear or of simple
curvature. The amount of emergence may be inferred from the altitude
to which the marine strata rise along their inland border. It may be at
once stated that coasts of this kind are seldom fronted by coral reefs,
apparently because the loose sediments of their beaches and submarine
slopes do not afford a suitable foundation for coral-growth : witness the
Madras coast of India, the south coast of Java, and the west and south
coasts of Borneo, all of which bear marks of sub-recent emergence. Another
class of coasts of emergence, on which coral reefs abound, will be given
special description below.

Young Volcanic I.slands. — The coasts of young volcanic islands may be
associated with coasts of emergence, especially if composed largely of ash
and not of solid lava. They are frequently cliffed and beached, without
reefs. Barren Island, east of the Andamans, in the Bay of Bengal, is some-
what cliffed, and but little fringed with corals. Reunion, in the western
Indian Ocean, has reached a rather mature stage of erosion and abrasion,
with a very imperfect development of fringing reefs, as will be further
explained below. It therefore resembles certain strongly cliffed volcanic
islands in temperate latitudes. Let it be noted that the cUffs of such
islands are usually cut back by the waves at a faster rate than the valleys
are cut down by their streams, so that the valleys are left hanging above
sea-level, and their streams cascade do^vn the cliffs to the beach.

Coasts of Submergence. — On coasts of submergence the shore-line will
necessarily be irregular, advancing seaward around the outstanding points
of partly submerged spurs and entering landward around the branching
embayments of partly submerged valleys. Conversely, shore-lines of this
kind indicate that the coasts which they border have been submerged, as
Dana pointed out in 1849. Singularly enough, Darwin never perceived the
value of this evidence in support of his theory (Davis, 1913).

The spur-ends of coasts of submergence in the coral seas usually offer
excellent opportunity for the growth of fringing reefs, for their firm rocks
are soon swept bare by the waves, and they are free from the detritus that
accumulates in the bay-heads. If the submergence be slowly continued,
a fringing reef, A (fig. 1), may be transformed into a barrier reef, B, by
upward growth as the sea-level changes from S to T ; but if the sub-
mergence be renewed at a more rapid rate, changing the sea-level from
T to U, the barrier reef will be drowned, and, if a pause then occurs, a
fringing reef of a new generation, G, will be formed, as will be more
fully stated below.

, Unconformable Reef Contacts. — In all cases of reefs bordering coasts of
submergence the original fringing reef which forms the base of an upgrow-
ing barrier reef, as well as the lagoon deposits within the barrier reef and
the secondary fringing reefs that grow on the spur-ends of the lagoon shore,
and also all fringing reefs of new generations, must rest unconformably on

8

Transactions.

an uneven foundation of subaerial erosion. This point has been too gene-
rally overlooked, although it is of the highest theoretical importance. Its
converse is of practical value : reefs that rest unconformably on surfaces
of subaerial erosion must have been initiated by submergence. Hence the
natu.re of the contact of a reef and its foundation should be carefully
observed, whether the reef be at sea-level or elevated above it.

^rrflMnit

iiiii

lin'

Fia. 1.

Amount of Submergence. — The amount of submergence that an embayed
coast has suffered is not well indicated by the depth of its embayments, for
they may be much filled w^ith sediments ; the amount is better inferred by
drawing a true-scale cross profile, as at P. fig. 2, of the spurs that enclose
a bay-mouth, and continuing their slopes with decreasing declivity below
sea-level until they meet. The visible cross-section of the valley above the

Fig. 2.

bay-head at Q should be taken as indicating the pattern of the submerged
cross-section at the bav-mouth, P. The measure of submergence thus
gained is only a minimum value, for, as shown in fig. 2, the depth of the
submerged valley near the bay-mouth may be only about half the depth
of the original valley-mouth, \ .

Pre-submeiyeuce Period. — The duration of the pre-submergence period of
subaerial erosion should be estimated as short, long, or very long, by com-
paring the actual form of the visible land-surface with its inferred initial
form, due allowance being made for rock-resistance. In the case of dis-
sected and embayed volcanic islands this comparison may often be made
without much difficulty. On the coasts of continents and of continental
islands the comparison may not be so easily instituted, but an attentive
examination of the form of the coastal slopes will usually suffice to deter-
mine whether the cycle of erosion was in an early, middle, or late stage of
its progress when it was interrupted by submergence.

Davis. — Signifiaaii Fta/iires of Rft f-lioi(h i-rd ('mists. 'J

Thus the submergence of the Queensland coast, in association with
wliich the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and the discontinuous fring-
ing reef in the broad lagoon were formed, did not occur until the rather
resistant rocks which there prevail had been reduced to subdued forms of
late maturitv or even to the low relief of old age. The same may be said of
much of the south-western coast of New Caledonia, except that the rocks
there present near the shore are for the most part weaker than those of
Queensland. In both these examples the pre-submergence period of sub-
aerial erosion must have been of long duration.

In view of these various considerations it is evident that careful obserxa-
tion should be made of reef-bordered coasts from a physiographic as well as
from a geological ])oint of view, in order to determine whether the reefs
have been formed in association with the submergence or the emergence of
their foundation. It is also important that reef-free coasts in the coral seas
should be similarly observed, in order to discover the conditions that do
not favour reef-forniation.

Rate of Submergence. — The ordinary statement of Darwin's theory of
coral reefs implies that the rate at which reef-foundations have been sub-
merged as a result of their own subsidence must not be greater, but may
be less, than the rate of reef-upgrowth ; and this has been held to be an
improbable condition. Darwin's own statement of the problem made no
such limitation as to the rate of subsidence, except where barrier reefs and
atolls are actually found. For those reefs he stated that relatively rapid
subsidences of small amount alternating with long stationary pauses pro-
babl}' represent the ordinary succession of events, and he believed that the
average rate of submergence thus determined was not in such cases faster
than the rate of reef-upgrowth.

This seems to hold true for the greater part of the open Pacific, where
atolls and barrier reefs prevail, even though the submergence due to insular
subsidence there has been accelerated by a sub-recent rise of ocean-level
during the melting of the Pleistocene ice-sheets — a matter which has come
into importance in recent years, as will be shown in more detail below.
But exception to this statement is needed for an area to the north of the
Fiji Group, where fifteen or more submarine banks, apparently submerged
reefs or " drowned atolls,"' have been discovered since Darwin's time ; and
also for the region of the Tonga Islands, where extensive submarine banks
occur. In both these regions of the mid-Pacific, and in a few others, sub-
mergence appears to have taken place at a faster rate than reef-upgrowth.
They thus corresjjond to a large part of the Indian Ocean, where submarine
banks, ap})arently " drowned atolls,'' prevail, as Darwin clearly understood.

Darwin on Fringing Reefs. — Furthermore, although Darwin regarded
most fringing reefs as having been formed on stationary or on rising coasts,
he clearly understood that rapid subsidence might drown earlier-formed
reefs, whereujjon the reefs that would grow on the new shore-line would
be of the fringing class, as noted above. The statement of this point on
page 124 of his Coral Reefs (1842) deserves attentive reading. True, inas-
much as Darwin did not understand that embayed shore-lines and uncon-
formable reef contacts around spur-ends are sure signs of submergence, he
discovered no examples of fringing reefs of this kind in the records that he
studied, and all the fringing reefs on his chart are classed as occurring on
stationary or rising coasts.

But his deductive expectation may now be confirmed, for the Austral-
asian and other archipelagoes contain numeroiis examples of fringing reefs

10 Transactions.

unconformably contouring around the spur-ends of embayed coasts — witness
Palawan, the south-westernmost member of the PhiUppines, and many other
embayed islands in that group — well represented in recent charts of the
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ; also the Andaman Islands, in
the Bay of Bengal ; for in all these examples the coast is elaborately
embayed ; and hence their fringing reefs must be unconformable, and
their submergence must have taken place at a faster rate than reef-
upgrowth. Many other examples of the same kind might be cited.

Fringing Reefs and Submarine Platforms. — Fringing reefs thus assume
a much greater interest than is generally allowed to them : their relations
to the features of the coasts they border deserve close attention. The
breadth of the reefs should be noted as a means of estimating the time
that has elapsed since the last movement of submergence took place.
The ofi-shore soundings of reef-fringed coasts of submergence are also of
importance, for they frequently reveal a submarine platform that in all
probability represents a drowned barrier reef and its lagoon.

Such submarine platforms, several miles in width, are found in
association with Palawan and the Andamans, although the sea-level
fringing reefs of these islands are narrow. A well-developed submarine
platform surrounds the greatly denuded " volcanic wreck " of Fauro, a
small island with narrow fringing reefs in the Solomon Group. A similar
platform is shown by the latest surveys of the United States Hydro-
graphic Office to surround the Samoan island of Tutuila ; but the fact
that the spur-ends of this island are rather strongly clified behind their
fringing reefs distinguishes it from the other examples named. Submarine
platforms occur around the Marquesas Islands also ; but here, although
the spur-ends are cliff ed, as in Tutuila, they are not fronted by fringing
reefs.

The depth of the submarine platforms ofi reef-fringed shores is not
constant : along the west coast of Palawan the platform varies in depth
from 25 or 30 fathoms near its southern end to 60 fathoms near its mid-
length ; the Fauro platform has depths of 70 or more fathoms ; the
Andaman platform is 30 or 40 fathoms in depth. On the other hand,
part of the coast of Samar, in the Philippines, facing the open Pacific,
has fringing reefs around its headlands, but its submarine slope descends
rapidly to great depths. Now, let it be noted, first, that the three
chief elements of the fringing-reef problem as here considered — duration
of the pre-submergence period of subaerial erosion, rate and amount of
submergence, and duration of post-submergence period of fringing-reef
growth — have unlike values on difl'erent islands ; secondly, that many
other islands have well-developed barrier reefs which suggest slow sub-
mergence, and that some barrier reefs are broad and others are narrow,
thus suggesting that the rate and date of their submergence are unlike ;
and, thirdly, that many elevated reefs occur at difterent altitudes and in
different stages of erosion.

It thus becomes evident that the history of various reef-encircled
islands must consist of unlike sequences of movements and pauses.
Hence local movements of the reef - formations themselves, which may
varv greatly, explain the varied facts much better than changes of ocean-
level, which must everywhere be of the same rate, date, and amount. In
order to learn how greatly the values of the various elements differ from
place to place, their value for every coast should be determined
independently. One of the most important of these elements is the

Davis. — Significant Feattires of liitf -bordered Coasts. 11

duration of the post-emergence or post-submergence stationary period,
the estimation of which may now be considered in some detail.

Time since Emergence. — The shore-line of an emerged and thence-
forward stationary coastal plain may be locally built forward, or
" prograded," by deltas if its rivers are of large volume and well charged
with detritus from an elevated backland ; and sand reefs enclosing
shallow or marshy lagoons may be cast up by the waves between the
deltas, and may advance seaward as the delta-fronts advance. Conditions
of this sort appear to prevail along the Madras border of India, and
around the south-west side of Borneo, thus proving that these coasts
have been somewhat changed from their simpler initial form ; but the
littoral conditions are still manifestly unfavourable to coral-reef formation.

It is conceivable, however, that after a temporary supply of gravel
and cobbles has been washed out by a flooded river to a certain part
of the front of a delta that is for the most part composed of finer
sediments the river may change its course, as rivers on deltas are prone
to do. Then corals, attaching themselves to the larger cobbles, may
spread sufficiently to form a small fringing reef, until a return of the
river buries the corals. A buried reef of this kind will slant forward
with the delta-front, and will lie conformably between the earlier and
later foreset delta-beds. Such seems to have been the origin of a small
elevated reef near Suva, Fiji : it lies on a local deposit of gravel, and
both the gravel and the reef lie conformably in the slanting beds of
volcanic mud, there known as '' soapstone."

The extent of the littoral lowland that is prograded along the border
of a coastal plain will give some idea of the time that has elapsed since
the plain emerged. But such lowlands are not always developed ; for,
if large rivers are wanting, the shore-line of a coastal plain may be cut
back or retrograded farther and farther by the sea, as long as no change
of level takes place. The farther it is cut back, the higher will be the
resulting bluSs along the coastal-plain margin. The height of the bluffs
along the shore of a retrograded coastal plain will therefore give an
indication of the time during which it has been attacked by the sea.
A more important point is that, however far such a stationary coast may
be retrograded, a beach of loose detritus, continued off shore by a sheet
of finer sediments, will, according to accepted physiographic theory, always
cloak the abraded ^^latform along the base of the retreating bluff's. No
reefs are therefore to be expected on such a coast.

The ReeJ-free Coast of Madras. — It is important that the coasts of
the coral seas should be examined with these principles in mind in order
to test their correctness. As far as I have read, there is no published
account of a strongly retrograded coast in the torrid seas that is still
suffering abrasion in its original stand with respect to sea-level. It is
interesting to note, however, that the high, hard-rock cliffs which, as
described by Gushing, rise a short distance inland on the coast of Madras
appear to have been cut back by the sea before the emergence of the
present Madras coastal plain ; hence the cliffs must, before the sub-recent
movement of emergence by which a negative shift of the shore-line was
caused, have exemplified a maturely retrograded, reef-free coast ; and
at the beginning of their abrasion the hard-rock land-mass must in all
probability have been covered, near its shore-line at least, with the sedi-
ments of an ancient coastal plain of emergence, just as the emerged
platform of marine abrasion which fronts the high cliff's is covered by a

12 Transactions.

modern coastal plain to-day ; for otherwise it is difficult to understand
why coral reefs should not have been formed there and have prevented
the cutting of the high cliffs.

cuffed Volcanic Islands. — It has been suggested above that the shore-
lines of volcanic islands may be regarded as shore-lines of emergence,
particularly if the island is largely composed of loosely compacted volcanic
ash ; for such a shore-line will be of comparatively simple outline, without
pronounced salients or embayments, and the detritus washed down its
slopes by its streams, added to that cut by the waves along the shore,
v.'iU soon form a continuous beach, extending seaward in a sheet of loose
sediments, on which reef-building corals cannot attach themselves (Davis,
1916b). Under such conditions the island will be continuously attacked
by the waves, cliffs will be cut around its shore while valleys are eroded
in its slopes, and if the island stand still long enough it will be com-
pletely truncated. Even then it may be difficult for corals to find a
firm foundation for their growth until nearly all the loose detritus is
swept off the surface of truncation.

According to Admiral AVharton, atolls were supposed to have been
built up around the margin of truncated volcanic islands, no change of
sea-level and no subsidence of the island being postulated. Darwin had
previously considered this possibility and rejected it, because the resulting
lagoons would be too shallow. Ac rding to Daly, atolls are supposed to
have been built up on volcanic platforms that were abraded while the
ocean was lowered and reef-building corals were killed, during the Glacial
period. The best test of these suppositions involves a series of borings
along the diameter of an atoll to a depth of 50 or more fathoms below
present sea-level : the elevated atolls of the Loyalty Islands are to be
recommended for such examination.

If it be true, as above suggested, that still-standing volcanic islands
may, in the absence of protecting reefs, be cut away by the sea, a number
of examples in different stages of abrasion should be found in the coral
seas of to-day. Reunion is the best example of the kind, stiU in process
of abrasion, that has come to my attention. Tahiti is an equally good
example, but it has been somewhat submerged, and its shores are now
defended by coral reefs, as will be more fully described below. Tutuila,
in Samoa, and the Marquesas Islands probably, as noted above, belong
to this series, biit their place cannot be safely determined at present.
Most volcanic islands in the coral seas are surrounded by barrier reefs,
and their shore-lines are not cliffed. It is very desirable that aU islands of
the coral seas should be examined with the points here set forth in mind.
The brief accounts now available of many such islands do not suffice to
determine what stage of erosional and abrasional evolution they have reached.

Time since Submergence. — The headlands of coasts of submergence in
temperate latitudes, not being defended by coral reefs, are vigorously
attacked by storm waves ; thus a cliff is formed rising high above sea-
level, and a platform lying a little below sea-level. Coasts of submergence
in the coral seas are as a rule fronted by barrier reefs or bordered by
fringing reefs ; hence they do not generally show the strongly cliffed spur-
ends that characterize similar coasts in temperate latitudes. True, the
spur-ends of such coasts are often cut off in low bluffs, B (fig. 4), 10 ft. to
50 ft. in height, forward from which one may see low-tide rock platforms
30 ft. to 100 ft. in breadth before one reaches the fringing reef, F, that is
ordinarily found in such situations.

Davis. — Si(jii ificnnt Ftafurex of l\nf-li(>i<h red ('odKfs. 13

The absence, of talus at the base of sucli bluffs shows that they are
still washed by storm waves, but the strength of attack is not great.
Indeed, it is probable enough that the greater part of the abrasion that
these low spur-end clifTs attest was accomplished by waves that rolled in,
little impeded, from the open ocean, shortly after the last period of
submergence and before the present barrier reef was built up to sea-level.
This implies that the submergence was rapidly accomplished and was
followed bv a pause. The form of the abraded rock platform on many
spur-ends supports that view ; for its outer border is about in line with
the sloping ridge-crest above the cut-off bluff, as it should be if all the
abrasion had been accomplished since submergence took place. If some
abrasion had been accomplished during the progress of slow submergence
the outer border of the platform could not be so nearly in line with the
ridge-crest. Detailed observation of spur-end bluffs and platforms is
therefore desirable.

If the above suggestion as to the origin of the spar-end bluffs be
correct, their height will not be so good an indication of the time since
siibmergence as may be found in the breadth of the fringing and barrier
reefs, or in the area of the bay-head deltas. If the reefs are narrow and
the deltas are small (due consideration being given the drainage-area and
slope of their streams) the latest submergence must be recent ; if the
reefs are broad and the deltas are large enough to fill the embayments
the submergence must be less recent, though by no means of ancient date.
Careful record of all these features should be made.

Barrier Eeefs.

The transfoi-'uation of original discontinuous fringing reefs on the spur-
ends of a slightly submerged coast into a nearly continuous barrier reef
a mile or more outside of a more deeply submerged coast involves the
circupiforoiitial extension of the fringing reefs as they grow upward, so
'hat they shall close most of the broad breaches that would otherwise
mark the sites of the original embayments. The barrier reef on the eastern
side of Tahiti is a good example of discontinuous growth still interrupted
by wide passages ; on the w^estern side the reef is more continuous. It
may be noted in this connection that barrier reefs in Fiji are, unlike those
of Tahiti, more generally interrupted on their leev/ard than on their wind-
ward side : this may be due to the injury to coral-growth caused by the
drift of fine sediment in the lagoon-waters.

The depth of a barrier-reef foundation, or the amount of submergence
that has taken place since the barrier reef began its growth as a fringing
reef, cannot be determined readily, because it is impossible to say whether
the upgrowth of the reef has taken place vertically or on an inward or an
outward slant. The rate of submergence appears to be the chief factor
in determining the angle of upgrowth (Davis, 1916c). The vertical depth
from a barrier reef to the underlying rock can be more safely estimated,
because the submarine slope of the foundation mass can often be fairlv
well inferred.

It is not necessary here to proceed merely on the empirical principle,
introduced by Dampier and followed by Darwin, to the effect that
" a considerable degree of relation subsists between the inclination of
that part of the land which is beneath the water and that above it," for
it is now possible to infer the declivity of a submarine slope more
reasonably by observation of the structure and form of the land-mass

14

Transactions.

/

above sea-level. In the case of many volcanic islands it is not
unreasonable to conclude that a barrier reef a mile from the island-shore
has a vertical thickness of 1,000 ft. This conclusion evidently rejects
the idea that a barrier reef is built upon a shallow platform of non-reef
origin, which appears to me as improbable as that a volcanic island rests
upon a shallow foundation of non-volcanic origin.

Mature Reef Plains. — Although coasts of recent submergence usually
present favourable conditions for the growth of fringing or of barrier reefs,
these conditions may not persist indefinitely on coasts that long remain
stationary after a less recent submergence ; for, if the land drained by
the coastal rivers is of large-enough area, deltas, E (fig. 3), will in time not

Fig. 3.

only fill the drowned-valley embayments of a still-standing island, but
will unite around the spur-ends and form a confluent alluvial lagoon
plain, F, with a shore-line of comparatively simple pattern. As the
advance or the progradation of such a plain continues, the fringing reefs
on the spur-ends will be smothered with detritus. Such appears to have
been the fate of many fringing reefs on the island o^ Tahiti, where an
alluvial plain extends along much of the island-border. As the plain is
still farther prograded, and as overwash of debris from the. outer face to
the inner slope of the outgrowing reef continues, the lagoon will be filled and
converted into a mature reef plain, MP.

If the outwash of alluvium still goes on, the barrier reef, R, iu
spite of the width it may have then attained by outward growth, will be
smothered, and its corals will be killed. Thereupon the sea will attack
the reef and cut it away ; and if this process be once begun there appears
to be no reason for it to stop. The alluvial reef plain must in time be
consumed, and then the central island will be attacked and clified ; for
as long as the island stands stiU, and as long as outwashed alluvium
supplies material for a beach, coral growth cannot be re-established
(Davis, 1917a). This sequence of events is evidently hypothetical in a
high degree : nevertheless, the successive stages of such a sequence, and
of all other reasonable sequences, should be carefully conceived by an
observer of coral reefs while he is still on his voyage of investigation, m
order that he may be able to confront the successive stages of the various
sequences with the reefs that he sees, and thus discover which sequence
gives the best history of their origin.

The danger of being buried and smothered in alluvium appears to
threaten the barrier reef along the south coast of Viti Levu, Fiji, where
the delta of the Rewa River has almost filled the lagoon ; and a long
stretch of the barrier reef on the south side of New Guinea appears to be

Davis. — Significniif Fealures uf Beef-hordered Coasts. 15

already smothered where the great delta of the Fly Kiver has advanced
far into the sea.

Most barrier reefs are, however, in no immediate danger of such a
fate ; their lagoons are far from being filled with alluvium ; deltas, indeed,
as a rule do not fill the embayments in which they head. Both the Rewa
and the Fly are exceptional in being much larger than the rivers of most
islands within barrier reefs. The prevalence of open lagoons shows that
no such constant relation of land and sea level has been maintained as
was provisionally postulated above, but that submergence has prevented
lagoon-filling not only by providing new depths to be filled up, but also
in the case of islands by diminishing the area and the altitude of the land
from which ])art of the filling-material should come.

On the other hand, in view of the many possible changes of land and
sea level, and of their many possible combinations with periods of rest,
it is surprising that, among the many examples of reef-encircled islands,
none are found with mature reef plains approaching or realizing the stage
of smothering the corals on the reef-face. For if the development of
barrier reefs depended only on the subsidence of their foundations, and if
their foundations were of dift'erent ages and had subsided by different
measures and at different dates, we should expect to see all stages of reef-
development to-day — some close-set, discontinuous barriers ; others broader
and farther from their central island, tlie embayments of which should
contam good-sized deltas ; and so on through all the stages to a mature
reef plain, the alluvium of which is just overlapping the reef ; and then
an old reef plain, much reduced from its original breadth by abrasion.
But, with such exceptions as the Rewa and Fly deltas, no mature reef
plains are known.

Combination of I stand -subsidence ivith Changes of Ocean-level. — The
absence of completed reef plains cannot be due to lack of detritus for their
formation, for the amounts of detritus that have been discharged from
many deeply denuded volcanic islands are vastly greater than the volumes
of the lagoons enclosed by their barrier reefs. Hence the prevalence to-day
of young barrier reefs with open lagoons must be taken as suggesting that
some recent and widespread cause has produced a more general submergence
than should be expected from island-subsidence alone ; and this cause is
perhaps to be found in the post-Glacial rise of ocean-level, for a rise of
ocean-level combined with a prevalent but intermittent subsidence of
reef-foundations would tend to maintain the barrier reefs of to-day in an
early stage of their development and prevent the attainment of the more
mature stage which they would reach during a long period of fixed levels
of islands and ocean.

On the other hand, a fall of ocean-level, such as must have accom-
panied the oncoming of the last glacial epoch, would have tended to
lessen or even to neutralize the submergence due to prevalent subsidence ;
hence during a glacial epoch lagoons may have been more generally filled
than during an interglacial epoch or during the present post-Glacial epoch
(Davis, 1915, p. 267 ; 1916a, p. 565). These somewhat transcendental
aspects of the coral-reef problem are mentioned here in hopes that they
may incite special observations, by means of which the possibilities here
sketched may be assigned their proper values.

That the post-Glacial rise of ocean-level is not the entire or even the
chief cause of the submergence under which barrier reefs as well as uncon-
formable fringing reefs have been developed is proved by the great diversity

16 Transactions.

in the succession and the vahie of the movements and pauses recorded
by the physiographic features of the islands within the reefs, as has already
been briefly noted in an earlier paragraph, and as will be set forth more
fully in a later one. /

Origin op Lagoons. /

According to Darwin's theory of intermittent subsidence, the lagoon
occupying the depression or " moat " between an island slope and an
upgrowing barrier reef is more or less completely filled by the outwash of
detritus from the central island, by the in wash of debris from the reef-
face, and by the accumulation of locally formed organic material. Recent
observations warrant the assignment of a large value to the last-named
process, which is further important because it is just as effective in
aggrading a large lagoon as a small lagoon. If subsidence cease for a long
period, the lagoon may be converted into a reef plain, as suggested in a
preceding section.

This view of the relation between barrier reefs and their lagoon is the
very opposite of that implied in Murray's theory of outgrowing reefs on
non - subsiding foundations, for it is there postulated that lagoons are
formed by the solution of the outgrowing reef along its inner border.
There can be no question that sea-water flows into lagoons in sufficient
quantity to dissolve away a large volume of limestone ; but, as far as
observational evidence goes, the loss thus occasioned is far overbalanced
by the supply of new detritus from the various sources above mentioned.

According to Murray's solution theory, the inner slope of a barrier reef
should consist of ragged and decaying limestone, and the lagoon-fioor should
be covered with insoluble silts (Davis, 1914, p. 641) ; but as a matter of
fact the inner slope of barrier reefs usually consists of white coral sand,
washed in from the outer reef-face ; and the lagoon-floor is covered with
accumulating calcareous deposits, except that near the deltas of large
streams inorganic deposits preponderate. Detailed observations should be
made by dredging in lagoons in order to test the generality of the above
statements. Atoll lagoons deserve as much attention as barrier-reef lagoons
in this phase of the problem.

Attention may here be called to Vaughan's view that many barrier reefs
are built upon platforms which were produced by other than coral-reef
agencies. Inasmuch as the supposed platforms beneath sea-level reefs are
not open to direct observation, their existence as structures independent of
reef-forming agencies is for the present only an inference. Any observable
facts that bear on this aspect of the problem should be carefully noted.
Among such facts pointed out by Vaughan, three may be noted : the first
is that the exterior profile of most reefs shows a change from a moderate
slope to a steep pitch at a depth of about 40 fathoms ; the second is that
reefs ocasionally stand a short distance back from the outer margin of a
40-fathom bench ; the third is that where reefs are breached, as frequently
happens on their leeward side, the lagoon-floor or " platform " continues.

It may, however, be reasonably urged that none of these facts neces-
sarily leads to the conclusion that the production of a platform by some
agency independent of reef-formation preceded the formation of the present
reefs. As to the change from a gentle slope to a steep pitch in the exterior
profile, many observers, including Darwin, Murray, and Gardiner, are agreed
that this is the result of wave-action on reef detritus at present sea-level :
the exterior slope of a reef is, in effect, a small " reef shelf," corresponding

Davis. — Signi/icaiif Ftafures of E(< f-liordfird Coasts. 17

to the great continental shelves in origin, though not in size. The con-
tinuity oi the " platform " where a surface barrier reef is wanting, especi-
ally on the leeward side of its circuit, may be readily explained as resulting
from the continued action of reef-building and lagoon-flooring processes,
during subsidences of varying rates and pauses of varying duration, under
the influence of prevailing winds. The location of a reef a short distance
back of a platform-margin is perfectly consistent with the production of the
platform as a mature reef plain, afterwards submerged, and by no means
demands that the platform shall have been made iDy processes in w^hich
reef-growth had no part. The discussion of this point by observers on reef-
encircled islands is much to be desired.

Partly Emerged Coasts op Submergence.

A peculiar class of coasts of emergence, mentioned above as needing
special consideration, includes mountainous land-borders that have partly
emerged shortly after a greater submergence at too rapid a rate for the
upgrow'th of barrier reefs. They are characterized by irregular shore-lines
with manv salients and re-entrants, on which a comparatively thin cover
of marine deposits accumulated during their brief submergence hardly con-
ceals the hill-and-valley topography that was produced during a previous
and much longer pre-submergence erosional period. On such a shore-line
the unconsolidated marine deposits are soon worn away from the headlands
during pauses in the emergence, so that unconformable fringing reefs may
be formed there. If emergence continue intermittently, the fringing reefs
will appear as terraces on the emerged slopes.

Coasts of this kind appear to be of importance in the coral-reef problem,
because they are found to be of frequent occurrence on the deep-water
shores of the Australasian region, where unconformable fringing-reef ter-
races are reported on many inlands that have embayed shore-lines. It is
nevertheless a mistake to conclude, without further question, that all such
terracing reefs have been formed during pauses in emergence, although this
conclusion has nearly always been adopted by their observers. Such a
conclusion tacitly postulates that the previous sulimergence took place at
so rapid a rate that no reefs were formed during its progress. Yet it is
evidently ecj[ually conceivable that the reefs may have been formed during
pauses in a slow submergence and revealed by a rapid emergence (Davis,
1916a, p. 499). Discrimination between the two conditions of origin may
be made if the structure of the emerged reef is laid bare by erosion, as wall
be shown in a later section. In any case, coasts of this kind merit special
attention as indicating a pronounced instability.

Partly Submerged Coasts of Emergence.

Just as the rule that coasts of emergence are unfavourable to reef-growth
is departed from in the case of steep coasts that are partly emerged after a
brief submergence, so the rule that coasts of submergence are favourable to
reef-growth is departed from in the case of gently sloping coasts that are
moderately submerged after a long emergence, during which the adjoining
sea-bottom was shoaled by the accumulation of sediments ; for on such
coasts the waves will sweep in so much sediment from the shallow bottom
that any corals which may for a time attempt to grow on the headlands
will soon be smothered and killed. The scarcity of reefs on those islands
of the Australasian archipelagoes that have embayed shore-lines fronted by

18

Transactions.

shallow seas may ])erliaps be thus explained ; but, as this aspect of the
problem has been little considered by observers on the ground, the chief
object of this paragraph is to stimulate local and critical observation rather
than to announce an assured conclusion. /

Cliffed Coasts, partly submerged.

Since the proposal of the glacial-control theory of coral reefs (Daly,
1910 ; 1915) it has become important to note whether the spur-ends of
embayed coasts inside of fringing or barrier reefs are cut off in cliffs
that descend steeply below sea-level. That theory assumes that mid-
Pacific volcanic islands have long stood still, and that their embayments
occupy valleys which were eroded while the ocean was lowered during the
Glacial period. It assumes furthermore that the lowered ocean was chilled
sufficiently to kill the corals and other organisms of coral reefs, so that
the reefs would be cut away, probably at some such level as 40 fathoms
below the present ocean-surface.

Now, if these assumptions are correct, it follows that an embayed island,
like Murea in the Society Group, which is now surrounded by a barrier reef
about half a mile from the shore, must, after its corals were killed and its
reef was cut away by the waves of the lowered sea, have been strongly cut
back in cliff's ; for, if the sea were actively abrading the island during a
period long enough for the excavation of the open valleys now occupied by
arms of the sea, the spurs between the valleys must have been cliffed. Be
it remembered here that, according to the testimony of volcanic islands in
the temperate oceans, the retreat of cliffs under the attack of sea-waves is
more rapid than the deepening of valleys by streams, and hence all the
more rapid than the slow widening of valleys by the weathering of their
side slopes. Rock-resistance need not be considered, for it will affect cliff-
cutting and valley-widening in similar fashion.

It is evident, therefore, that close attention should be given to the forms
of spur-ends where they disappear in the lagoons of barrier reefs, particu-
larly where the barrier reefs are not far off shore. If the spurs are cut off

Fio. 4.

in bluff's, B (fig. 4), from 10 ft. to 50 ft. in height, in front of which
rock platforms extend from 30 ft. to 100 ft. forward, such bluffs and plat-
forms must be attributed to wave-action at present sea-level, as has been
explained above.

If, on the other hand, high spur-end bluff's or cliff's, LH, are found but
no rock platforms are visible in front of them, and if (except for a narrow
fringing reef) the lagoon has depths of 10 or 20 fathoms near the cliffed
spur-ends, then the cliffs should be attributed to wave-action producing a

profile HCP when the sea was lower or the land was higher than now.

As

Davis. — Significant Features of Reef -burdt red Coasts. 19

far as I can learn, low spur-end bluffs fronted by narrow rock platforms are
of much more common occurrence than strong spur-end cliffs that plunge,
except for their fringing reefs, into comparatively deep water. But fortu-
nately certain islands possess strong spur-end cliffs fronting on deep lagoons :
such islands deserve particular attention.

The HalJ-submerged Cliffs oj Tahiti.— Tahiti, the largest island of the
Society Group, is a volcanic doublet — that is, a larger and a smaller cone
connected by an isthmus — now submaturely dissected by radial consequent
valleys. In the central areas, where the valleys are close together and of
great depth, the initial surface of the cones is lost ; but it is well preserved
in the peripheral areas, where the valleys are more widely separated and of
moderate depth, as Dana long ago explained. The inter-valley spurs are,
except at the north-western (or leeward) corner of the large cone, cut back
in cliffs, which on the windward coasts rise 500 ft. to 1,000 ft. above present
sea-level. Agassiz is, as far as I have read, the only observer of
this beautiful island who has recognized the prevalence of cliff's around
its shores.

Many of the smaller valleys are not cut clown to present sea-level ; their
wet-weather streaius fall in cascades from cliff'-toji notches. The larger
valleys have been cut to a greater depth, for they descend below sea-level,
and their mouths are occupied either by small arms of the sea or by delta-
plains. The island is to-day bordered either by a fringing reef or by an
alluvial plain, which is formed by the confluence of many delta-plains that
have outgrown their valley-mouth embayments. Moreover, a somewhat
discontinuous barrier reef now holds off" the waves from most of the island
circuit. Evidently, then, the cliffs have not been cut while the island has
stood at its present level : they must have been cut when it stood relatively
higher — that is, when the valleys were in process of deep erosion beneath
present sea-level. Evidently, also, no reefs could have been present when
the cliffs were cut.

The question then arises whether Tahiti stood still and had its cliffs
cut while the ocean was lowered and chilled during the Glacial period, or
whether Tahiti, besides experiencing changes of ocean-level in the Glacial
period, itself subsided after cliff's had been cut around it, the cliff's having
been formerly cut around Tahiti for the same reason that cliffs are now
cut around Reunion — namely, because reef-forming corals cannot establish
their colonies on the cobbles and gravels of the beaches that are ordinarily
developed around the shore of a young volcanic island.

The latter alternative appears the more probable one of the two, for
two reasons. First, the amount of the submergence by which the Tahitian
valleys have been submerged appears to be 500 ft. or 600 ft. at least, and
this is much more than the amount of lowering that the ocean is believed
to have suffered during the Glacial period. Secondly, if the cliffs of Tahiti
were cut around a still-standing island by the waves of the lowered and
chilled ocean during the Glacial period, then the neighbouring island of
Murea, as well as the other more distant members of the Society Group,
should also be cut back in cliff's ; but, apart from a few very exceptional
cliff'ed spur-ends, that is not the case. The reefs of Tahiti should therefore
be regarded not as having found their opportunity for upgrowth when the
warming waters of the post-Glacial ocean were rising to their present level,
but as having found their opportunity when submergence, caused in part at
least by subsidence, embayed the island valleys so that the stream-washed
detritus was pocketed in the embayments. In the absence of detritus the

20 T ran sact ions.

I
waves washed the cliffs and the rock platform in front of them bare, and
this gave the corals a firm foundation on which to attach themselves.

If this interpretation be correct, the cliffs and reefs of Tahiti are not
only beyond explanation by the glacial-control theory, but the island is a
strong witness against the theory. It testifies that a reef-free island may
be strongly cliffed in a time that suffices only for the erosion of steep-sided
valleys : hence other islands, like Murea, Raiatea, and Huaheine, in the
Society Group, in which the submerged valleys are much less steep-sided
than those of Tahiti, ought to have been more strongly cliffed than Tahiti
if they were reef-free while their now-submerged valleys were in process of
erosion. The fact that they are not cliffed shows that they must have been
protected by living reefs, and thus discredits the assumption that reef-corals
were killed during the Glacial period. The possible less resistance of the
lavas on Murea and the other islands than on Tahiti does not affect the
argument, for if the Murean valleys are wider than the Tahitian valleys
because the rocks of Murea are weaker than those of Tahiti, then for
the same reason the spurs of Murea ought to be cut back in cliffs of
greater height than those of Tahiti.

The reason for giving a special account of Tahiti is that, among the
many reef-encircled volcanic islands of the Pacific, it is unique in being
cut nearly all around its circuit by strong cliff's the bases of which are
now belov\' sea-level. Similarly, as noted above, Reunion is unique among
islands in the coral seas in being cut all around by cliff's the bases of which
are at the sea-level of to-day and are now undergoing attack by the sea in
the absence of protecting reefs. Two intermediate stages are represented
by the Marquesas and Tutuila (Samoa), which have submerged cliffs but
are not surrounded by barrier reefs. Of these two stages, Tutuila is the
later, because it has well-developed fringing reefs, while the Marquesas are
reef-free. Search for other islands of the Reunion, Tahiti, and intermediate
types is evidently desirable, for it is manifestly unsafe to generalize on a
few examples. Yet, inasmuch as these few examples confirm each other,
one is tenapted to ask whether they do not show the typical stages of early
development through which many deeply-dissected, reef-encircled volcanic
islands have long ago passed — that is, whether many deeply-dissected, reef-
encircled volcanic islands would not show reef-buried cliffs and platforms
on their submarine slopes if they could be examined.

In a group of phenomena which ofl'er few examples of early stages and
many examples of later stages of development it certainly seems reason-
able to regard the examples of later stages as having passed through the
stages represented by the early examples, particularly when the early
exainples present the very features which a deliberate anal5'sis of the
problem leads one to regard as essential preliminaries to the features of
the more advanced examples. This interpretation appeals strongly to me,
because, instead of empirically entering the problem of reef-encircled
islands at a middle stage of progress, the attempt is made to trace out all
the stages of the problem from beginning to end.

On the other hand, many students of coral reefs may regard it as
fanciful, not to say fantastic, to say that the cliff's which are still in process
of abrasion on Reunion, and wliich are partly submerged and fairly well
protected from wave-attack on Tahiti, are probably the counterparts of
similar cliffs now completely submerged on the reef-buried lower slopes of
many other volcanic islands. But another aspect of the problem deserves
consideration before a decision on this question should be declared.

Davis. — Sir/nificaiif Features of Beef-bordered Coasts.

21

The Vanished Detritus of Deeply Denuded Islands.

Many volcanic islands, now deeply denuded in irregular forms, give clear
indication of their initial conical form in the outward slant of their
marginal lava-beds. It is in such cases a comparatively simple matter to
reconstruct their original cone, VW (fig. 5), and to estimate the volume
of detritus that has been removed in reducing the island to its present
maturely denuded form, EM. Even if no submergence be assumed, tlie
volume of detritus that has been carried away from so much of the initial
volcanic mass as is now above sea-level is, as noted above, vastly greater
than the volume of the lagoon waters, Gr, on all the reef-encircled islands
that I have seen. How has this great volume of detritus been disposed of ?

Fig. 3.

Let the island be supposed to have been formerly more emerged than
now, and let it stand still with respect to sea-level, SC, during a period of
deep dissection. Under these conditions the detritus washed out frrm its
valleys would soon completely overwhelm any fringing reef that might by
chance be established on its shores, and the waves would then cut cliffs,
CL, all around its circuit, as is now the case on Reunion. This considera-
tion alone is sufficient to discredit Murray's theory of outgrowing reefs on
still-standing islands. Moreover, if the island stand still, cliff-cutting will
continue and no opportunity for barrier-reef formation will be allowed.
Under Avhat conditions, then, is the formation of barrier reefs permitted ?

An apparent escape from the difficulty of accounting for the vanished
detritus around a still-standing island is found in changes of ocean-level
during the Glacial period ; for the detritus discharged while the ocean stood
at a lower level than now would be deposited on the lower slopes of the
island, and when the ocean rose again a barrier reef might grow up with it.
But during the discharge of the detritus reefs could not flourish, and waves
would then cut the island-shores back in cliffs ; and if cliff -cutting endured
through the time required to excavate the valleys now drowned in embay-
ments the cliffs would surely be high enough to be still visible after the
ocean has resumed its normal level. Hence the amount of submergence
thus provided is insufficient for the needs of the problem. Moreover, all
volcanic islands the eruptional growth of which was completed earlier than
the beginning of the Glacial period should have had cliffs cut around their
margin in pre-Glacial time, and some trace of these cliffs should now be
found. Another supposition must therefore be made, as follows : —

If an island, VW (fig. 6), with sea-level originally at NV, does not stand
still, it must subside to a great depth, NS, if no cliffs are to be cut around

22 T raiisaefions.

its margin and if tlie larger part of its discharged detritus is to be deposited
in the lagoon, G, of an upgrowing barrier reef, B ; but in this case the
early stages of subsidence must be so rapid, in order to provide sufficient
lagoon-space for the deposition of detritus, that the upgrowth of a reef
could hardly keep pace with it. It is not likely that the numerous barrier
reefs of to-day have all survived so threatening a danger : hence a slower
rate of early subsidence must be postulated.

Let the island, therefore, stand almost or quite still during a con-
siderable period after its eruptive growth ceases. In this case the
detritus supplied by the erosion of deep valleys, CY (fig. 5), and by the
abrasion of high cliffs, CL, will be swept off shore in large amount, D, by
vigorous waves, unimjoeded by a barrier reef ; then, if intermittent sub-
sidence begin, placing sea-level at TE, the further discharge of detritus
will be detained in the embayed valleys, E, and reef-upgrowth may begin.
But, as under these conditions strong cliff-cutting will have accompanied
the erosion of deep valleys, a considerable measure of subsidence, placing
sea-level at UV, will be eventually necessary to submerge the cliff-toi^s, L,
if they are not seen to-day. Whether this supposition represents the actual
history of reef-encircled islands or not, it certainly provides a more reason-
able condition for reef-growth than any oth-er supposition here considered.

W_ mrri nniiiiiiiniiiiliTTIliriiiiTiTlIi

Fig. 6.

Various combinations of diverse conditions may be imagined. For
example, the succession of events may be as follows : (1) Moderate cliff-
cutting during a still-stand period before reefs are developed ; (2) moderate
submergence and reef-upgrowth ; (3) a second still-stand period, resulting
in the smothering of reefs by outwashed detritus, and renewal of cliff-
cutting ; (4) further subsidence and renewed reef-growth. Tahiti seems
now to be approaching the third phase of this succession, for, if the present
still-stand that is attested by the alluvial lowland around the island border
endures as long as the earlier reefless period of valley- and cliff-cutting, the
lagoon will be overfilled, the smothered reefs will be abraded, and a new
attack will be made by the waves on the cliff's at a higher level than before.

In any event, the only way of developing a barrier reef around a deeply
dissected and non-cliffed volcanic island seems to be either to allow it to
subside rapidly to a great depth while its reef is growing up, or to allow it
to subside to a less depth after strong cliff's have been cut around its
shore. And inasmuch as Reunion, Tutuila and the Marquesas, and Tahiti
exemplify the second of these alternatives, the first alternative is regarded
as the less probable of the two.

Many more observations of reef-encircled islands are needed before the
questions here raised can be settled ; and the observations must evidently
be directed much more to the islands than to the reefs around them. The
various possibilities here outlined, and as many others as can be invented,

Davis. — Significant Features of Reef-hordered Coasts. 23

should be critically reviewed by the observer while he is still on the ground,
in order that he may give conscious attention to the details which are con-
firmatory of or contradictory to the different suppositions. The absence
of records regarding significant details in many accounts of reef-encircled
islands makes it impossible to use them in a settlement of the questions
at issue.

SUBMEEGENCE BY OCEAN RiSE OR BY ISLAND SUBSIDENCE.

The changes of level involved in producing coasts of submergence or of
emergence, and the changes in coral reefs therewith associated, may result
from various causes. Chief among these are, first, a local movement of the
earth's crust without significant alteration of ocean-level ; secondly, an
alteration of ocean-level due either to a distant movement of the earth's
crust or to the general transfer of detritus from continents to ocean basins ;
and, thirdly, an alteration of ocean-level due to climatic change, whereby
a considerable volume of water is withdrawn from or returned to the ocean
in connection with the making or melting of continental ice-sheets.

As far as coral reefs alone are concerned, it is immaterial whether the
changes of level upon which their formation or their emergence depend are
caused by one of these processes or another ; but when it is sought to
assign coral reefs to their proper place in the history of the earth the causes
of the changes of level with which they are associated must be determined
as definitely as possible, and this is now the most difficult part of the
coral-reef problem. In order to solve it, search must be made for the
characteristics by which each kind of change of level may be recognized.

Crustal subsidence operating over large areas was accepted by Darwin
and Dana as the whole cause of the subsidence with which coral reefs are
so generally associated. Local subsidence of volcanic islands, as a result
of their excessive weight, has been recently suggested by Molengraaff in
explanation of mid-Pacific atolls. It may seem at first sight that either
one of these processes would, if acting alone, cause a slight lowering of
ocean-level, whereby coasts of emergence would be produced around con-
tinental shores ; and in this case the resulting local submergence of the
reef-encircled islands would be a little less than the local subsidence.

But a closer consideration leads to other conclusions : first, inasmuch
as general crustal subsidence is presumably associated with compensatory
uplifts of other areas, the changes in ocean - level thus caused may be
neglected, and with all the more reason when it is noted that if a sub-
siding island is only partly submerged while a compensatory uplift of equal
volume occurs on the ocean-floor without any emergence the result will be
a small rise of ocean-level ; secondly, if a large number of volcanic islands
are built up in succession by eruption from the ocean-floor in such intervals
of time that the earliest ones have subsided so far as to be crowned with
atoll reefs when the latest ones are formed, the total effect on ocean-level
will be not a fail, but a small rise (Davis, 1917b).

In this connection let it be noted that modern investigation gives little
support to the old view that active volcanoes always occur in regions of
elevation. There is much evidence to show that the reverse is often true.
It is therefore desirable that the movements suffered by other islands in
the neighbourhood of young volcanic islands should be independently
worked out. It is certainly not legitimate to conclude, as has been done
by an observer in the Australasian region, that a certain atoll could not
have been formed by upgrowth during subsidence because an active volcano

24 Tj-aiisacfions.

stands near it, especially when the supposition of upheaval based on the
occurrence of the volcano is contradicted by the occurrence of embayments
in the shore-line of another island not far away.

The chief characteristics of crustal subsidences, as well as of crustal
upheavals, are that the submergences or emergences they produce may
vary from place to place in rate, amount, and date ; and in these significant
respects they will differ from the submergences or emergences due to other
causes, which must involve universal changes of ocean-level, everywhere
the same in date, amount, and rate, except where they are complicated
by contemporaneous local crustal movements. Evidently, then, it is
important to examine all structural and physiographic features of coral
reefs and of their encircled islands from which inferences may be made
as to the rate, amount, and date of the changes of level that they have
suffered, in order to learn how far they are everywhere alike, or how far
they vary from place to place.

Extravagant Deformation is demanded by Large Changes of Ocean-level. —
A few examples of results already gained in this direction will be given
below. But let it first be noted that in order to produce the submergence
or upheaval of an island by 1,000 ft. a local subsidence or upheaval of the
island by that amount in an ocean of essentially constant level is a much
more economical movement than the vast crustal deformations involved in
a rise or fall of the ocean-sarface by the same amount around a still-standing
island ; for such a change of ocean-level can be brought about only by a
change of the same measure in the entire ocean-floor (except around the
still-standing island), or by a ten times greater cliange in a tenth of the
ocean-floor.

Indeed, if a change of ocean-floor level over a tenth of its area involve
roughly compensatory changes of a similar area elsewhere, then in order
to cause a rise or fall of the ocean-surface by 1,000 ft. the failure of
compensation must be of the order of 10.000 ft. ; and, great as these
movements are, their whole measure must be accomplished in the same
period of time as that required for the much smaller measure of local
upheaval or subsidence of the island under discussion. It thus appears
that in seeking to account for a local submergence or emergence of 1,000 ft.
an economv of vertical movements in a reef-encircled island involves an
extravagance of movements elsewhere. Hence while small, slow, wide-
spread, and synchronous changes in the relative level of land and sea
mav be plausibly ascribed to changes in the level of the ocean as a result
of ocean-floor deformation, large, rapid, and local changes are best
accounted for by movements of the island or coast where they are
recorded.

Nevertheless, some students of coral reefs have attempted to throw
the responsibility for large submergences or emergences of the islands that
thev have described upon other unspecified parts of the world. Thus
C. W. Andrews says, regarding the emergence of Christmas Island, a little-
dissected high-standing atoll, 1,200 ft. in altitude, in the eastern Indian
Ocean, " It seems very probable that it is the general level of the surface
of the sea that has iDeen altered, and not merely a local upheaval of a
limited land area that has taken place." Inasmuch as in this case all
islands and all continental shores that did not suffer emergence at the
same time must have subsided with the ocean, an enormous terrestrial
disturbance is involved in this method of accounting for the recently gained
altitude of a single small island.

Davis. — Si(jiilfini nf Fcalnrcs of K( rf-liardf red Coasfs. 25

Suess was somewhat more warranted in ascribing the emergence of a
number of Pacific atolls to a sinking of ocean-level, for, according to the
records that he quoted, their altitudes were about alike ; but a closer
examination of the facts shows not only that the altitudes of these emerged
islands vary greatly, but also that the amount of post-emergence erosion
that they have suffered is very unlike. Hence their present altitudes
must be explained by local upheavals, varying in date as well as m
measure.

Diverse Measures and Dates of Submergences and Emergences. — Local
diiieiences in the measures and the dates of emergences and submergences
are the best indications of local movements, and evidence of such differences
is found on islands in many parts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. In
Fiji, for example, the uplifted limestones, which reach an altitude of 650 ft.
on Vanua Mbalavu, in the eastern part of the group, are greatly dissected ;
Vatu Vara, an elevated atoll thirty miles to the west, is hardly dissected
at all, though its height is 1,030 ft. ; Naiau, another elevated atoll, 580 ft.
in altitude, forty miles to the south, is also little dissected ; several other
barrier-reef islands, one hundred miles or more to the west, show no
signs of elevation.

Again, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, the two largest islands of the Fiji
Group, show fringing or close-set barrier reefs in association with slightly
elevated reefs on parts of their southern coast, while to the north-west
they have distant barrier reefs, enclosing broad lagoons. The barrier reef
on the north-west of Viti Levu is well formed near the island, but fails to
reach the sea-surface farther away, where the lagoon has the unusual depth
of 58 fathoms. Such a combination of features can hardly be explained
without assuming a gentle tilting of the islands.

A similar tilting would seem to be demanded by the features of the
Pelew Islands as described long ago by Semper, although that zoological
observer, who knew nothing of embayed shore-lines or of unconformable
reef contacts, thought tilting too improbable a process to be believed in.
New Caledonia shows abundant signs of recent submergence to some such
measure as 80 or 100 fathoms, while the Loyalty Islands, not far away
to the north-east, are recently elevated atolls. In the Solomon Group,
Fauro, previously mentioned, is surrounded by a submarine platform which
appears to represent a submerged barrier reef, while New Georgia, farther
east in the same group, is bordered for part of its circuit by a remarkably
good example of an emerged barrier reef.

It thus appears clear that diverse emergences and submergences at
different dates are indicated in various island groups. Hence, even if
changes of ocean-level from any cause have from time to time produced
universal and synchronous emergences and submergences of moderate
measure, local movements of much greater measure are also demanded
by the features of various islands, and these local movements are probably
the chief causes of the strong submergence which the drowned valleys
and outstanding barrier reefs of many volcanic islands call for. Further
observations on many reef-encircled islands should be made in order
to learn the relative values to be assigned to the various causes of
emergence and submergence ; and from what has thus far been said
it is clear that the observations should, in this aspect of the coral-reef
problem also, be directed more to the islands tlian to the reefs which
encircle them.

26 Transactions.

Atolls.

Although sea-level atolls are, by themselves, inscrutable structures, it
sometimes happens that they occur at moderate distances from barrier-
reef islands : then the changes of level demonstrated for the barrier reef
may be plausibly extended to the atoll also. Thus it has been possible
to show good reason for ascribing certain small atolls in Fiji to upgrowth
during submergence, and to show also that the submergence was probably
due to relatively local subsidence (Davis, 1916d). The large atoll of
Ongtong Java, north of the Solomon Islands, can hardly have been formed
according to any of the still-stand theories, because the Solomon Islands
show many signs of diverse vertical movements. Similarh^, the uplifted
Loyalty atolls have probably suffered other movements than that of their
last uplift, for they are not far distant from New Caledonia, which has
had many disturbances.

It may, of course, be urged that the atolls here mentioned, standing
near disturbed island groups, should not be taken to indicate the origin
of the more numerous atolls in the mid-Pacific ; but it may be answered
that, while the mid-Pacific region has very probably been less disturbed
by subsidences and upheavals than its western archipelagoes, nevertheless
the atolls which are associated with barrier reefs resemble mid-Pacific
atolls so closely in all essential particulars that the chief differences between
them are probably to be found less in the diverse conditions of their origin
than in the absence of neighbouring information-giving barrier-reef islands
in the one case and their presence in the other.

It has been argued by some students of the coral-reef problem that
the uniformity of the depth of atoll lagoons is better explained in connec-
tion with a rise of ocean-level everywhere of the same amount than by
the subsidence of the atolls, which must vary somewhat from place to
place. In so far as the post-Glacial rise of ocean-level can satisfy the
demands of the problem this argument may be accepted ; but inasmuch
as the depths of atoll lagoons, as far as they are known, vary in a manner
more suggestive of varying than of uniform measures of submergence,
perfect stability of the atolls is improbable. Moreover, the reef -encircled
volcanic islands that occur in close association with certain atoll groups
demand a greater measure of submergence to account for their drowTied
Talleys thaii can be provided by Glacial changes of ocean-level. Finally,
the evidence of the Funafuti boring is, as noted above, strongly in favour
of subsidence during the formation of its reef rock.

Elevated Keefs.

Recently-elevated atolls not dissected sufficiently to disclose their
structure give little more testimony regarding their origin than can be
obtained from sea-level reefs. But if a recently-elevated fringing or
barrier reef lie unconformably upon its foundation, and if its limestones
enter into valleys between the ridges of its central island, as is mani-
festly the case with the elevated reefs of Oahu, Hawaii, submergence of an
eroded land-surface must have taken place before the reef was formed.
The measure of submergence can be inferred if the down-slope exten-
sion of the eroded land-surface beneath the reef can be determined.

If elevated reefs have been out of water long enough to suffer dissection,
the details of their structure may be disclosed ; but so abundant is the
vegetation of tropical islands that observation of reef-structure is very

Davis. — S/f/nifjcanf Feaf tires of Reef -bordered Coasts.

27

difficult. It is of importance that tlie observer who has opportunity of
examining a dissected reef should locate the structural details that he may
discover with respect to the total reef-mass ; it is also important that he
should bear in mind the expectable structures of reefs formed according to
the several chief theories of reef-origin, as shown in figs. 7 and 8, for he
will thus be led to make special search for critical structures in their
appropriate locations.

Fig. 7.

Thus if the great body of an elevated reef consist, as in fig. 7, [of
steeply sloping layers of reef detritus mostly free from admixture with
volcanic sands and gravels, resting conformably upon a non-eroded volcanic
slope, T, and more or less complicated by slides, the reef should be
explained as a product of outgrowth during a prolonged still-stand period.
Darwin clearly recognized the possibility of reef-formation in this manner,
but regarded it as seldom occurring, because it would not result in the
formation of a reef-enclosed lagoon from 20 to 40 fathoms in depth.
Murray attempted to overcome this difficulty by assuming, as Semper
had before him, that the lagoon-cavity would be excavated by solution ;
but the assumption is not supported by the features of lagoons, as has
been noted above.

On the other hand, an elevated reef may show a three-part structure,
as in fig. 8. The steeply dipping, exterior strata, T, may be formed of
detritus chieflv derived from the reef, but with some fine sands and silts

Fig. 8.

from the central island. The slanting layers may be sometimes compli-
cated by slide -structure as in the ])receding case ; they may rest on a heavy
deposit of volcanic detritus, D, which should be associated with a buried
cliff. The intermediate wall-like structure, R, should contain much coral
in place, as well as large and small fragments. The outward or inward
slant of the wall appears to be dependent on the rate of subsidence during

28

Transactions.

its formation (Davis, 1916c). The nearly horizontal interior strata, L,
may contain coarse sand near the reef-wall, fine lagoon deposits in the
middle, and volcanic sands and gravels near the central island ; and the
Avhole mass, with the exception of some of the outer slanting layers, may
lie unconformably on a rock surface of subaerial erosion. In such a case
reef-upgrowth during prolonged submergence probably due to subsidence
would be inferred. Irregularities in the reef-wall, as in fig. 9, would
indicate changes in the rate of submergence. A horizontal outgrowth, H,

Fig. 9.

would occur during a long still-stand . period, when delta ])lains, E, might
almost fill the lagoon. The occurrence of a buried cliff and platform in
the profile of the underlying rock, and an exterior detrital deposit, as shown
in figs. 2, 4, 5, 8, and 9, would be of much theoretical interest.

In case dissected atolls are found, their structures should be studied
with especial care ; and if their rock foundation is disclosed it should be
closely examined to see whether the atoll limestones lie on it conformably
or not. Christmas Island, in the eastern Indian Ocean, merits renewed
study in this respect, for basalt has been seen in ravines behind its lime-
stones, but the nature of the limestone-basalt contact has not been fully
described.

Ficr. 10.

In case elevated reefs occur in terrace-like arrangement, one above the
other, as on Cebri in the Philippines, and elsewhere, the structure of the
successive terraces will indicate the sequence of formation of their reefs.

Davis. — Sig/iiffcdnf Ffafiirc.f of Rf tf-hordered Coasts. 29

Following Gilbert's method of interpreting the terraces of Lake Bonne-
ville, and assuming that the reefs rest imconformably on their rock
foundation, a series of superposed reefs, one resting on the other, must
have been formed during successive pauses in a long submergence and
afterwards rapidlv elevated ; while a series of apposed reefs, one in front
of the other, must have been formed during pauses in a long emergence,
preceded by a rapid submergence. Such a structure as is shown in fig. 10
should be interpreted as meaning that reefs A and B were formed during
pauses in submergence, while reefs C and D were formed during pauses
in emergence. It is manifest that all details of reef-structure such as are
here suggested should be critically observed.

Summary.

It is singular that the coral-reef problem, which has been so long under
discussion, should not have been already so far standardized as to make
the suggestions contained in this article unnecessary ; but, as a matter
of fact, neither the special reports by various investigators of coral reefs,
nor the leading text-books of geology and of physical geography, present
the problem in such a form as to emphasize the matters that are of the
greatest importance in its solution. Factors so essential as shore-line
embayments and unconformable reef contacts often receive no mention
whatever. The meaning of unconformable fringing reefs has been
almost universally overlooked. The forms of spur-ends on reef-encircled
islands are hardly ever described. The disposal of the waste from a
deeplv-dissected, reef-encircled island has received no discussion. Elevated
reefs, even if unconformable with their foundation, have nearly always
been interpreted as having been formed during pauses in the movement
of uplift by which they were elevated, and no recognition has been
given to the manifest possif)ility of their formation during pauses in a
preceding subsidence.

Several reasons for the neglect of these essential considerations may be
suggested. One is that the investigators of coral reefs have often been
zoologists, untrained in geological inquiry Another is that the physio-
graphic principles which are involved in a critical study of the reef
problem are not always familiar even to geological observers. A third
and perhaps the most important reason is that Iq-w investigators of coral
reefs a]ipear to have taken the time necessary to think out the essential
consequences of the several leading theories of reef-origin in order to
discover which of the consequences are best supported by the facts.
A fourth, as important as the third, is that observers have too often
given their chief attention to the reefs, and liave not attended sufficiently
to the islands that they encircle. A fifth is that the origin of coral
reefs is a very complicated matter, because many different factors
may have a share in it, and many different solutions therefore appear
possible.

It is in the hope of overcoming these deficiencies in the methods of
reef-investigation that the preceding pages have been written. While it
is recognized that the coral reefs constitute a wonderiul field for zoological
study, and that such study throws much light on the life-history of reefs in
the past, it is urged that the geological and physiographic study of reef-
encircled islands is necessary in order to discover the past inorganic
conditions under which reefs were developed.

30 Transactions.

While it is iully understood that the observation of the visible zoological
and geological facts of the present may absorb a large share of the atten-
tion of a reef-investigator, it is urged that he should frequently, while still
in the field, take enough time from observational work to think out as
carefully as possible the invisible conditions of the past according to each
and every theory known to him, and that having done so he should return
to an examination of the visible facts in order to discover which one of
his theories they best support. New Zealand is favourably situated as a
starting-point for the study of coral reefs ; hence the scientific world must
look to New Zealand students for new light on this old problem.

Eeferences.

Daly, R. A., 1910. Pleistocene Glaciation and the Coral-reef Problem, Amer. Journ.
Scl, vol. 30, pp. 297-308.

1915. The Glacial -control Theory of Coral Reefs, Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci., vol. 51,

pp. 157-251.
Davis, W. M., 1913. Dana's Confirmation of Darwin's Theory of Coral Reefs, Amer.

Journ. Sci., vol. 35, pp. 173-88.
— — 1914. The Home Study of Coral Reefs, Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc, vol. 46, pp. 561-77,

641-54, 721-39. [The omission of the name of E. C. Andrews on p. 724

(eleventh line from bottom) of this article, which was printed during my

absence on the Pacific, is a regretted oversight.]

1915. A Shaler Memorial Study of Coral Reefs, Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 40,

pp. 223-71.

191Ga. Problems associated with the Origin of Coral Reefs, Sci. Monthly, vol. 2,

pp. 313-33, 479-501, 557-72.

1916b. Clift Islands in the Coral Seas, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 2, pp. 283-88.

1916c. Extinguished and Resurgent Coral Reefs, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 2,

pp. 466-71.

1916d. The Origin of certain Fiji Atolls, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 2, pp. 471-75.

1917a. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia, Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 44, pp. 339-50.

1917b. The Isostatic Subsidence of Volcanic Islands, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 3,

pp. 649-54.
■ — — 1918. The Subsidence of Reef-encircled Islands, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 29,

pp. 489-574.
Skeats, E. W., 1918. The Coral-reef Problem and the Evidence of the Funafuti

Borings, Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 45, pp. 81-90; The Formation of Dolomite and

its Bearing on the Coral-reef Problem, ibid., pp. 185-200.

Art. III. — On the Occurrence of Two Unusual Blood-vessels in

Hyla aurea.

By Professor W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.R.S., Button Memorial Medallist.

{Read before the Otago Institute, 9th July, WIS ; received by Editor, 17th December,

WIS ; issued separately, 14th May, 7979.]

In former days, when fixity of species was a tenet of biologists, any imusual
occurrence in the anatomy of animals was spoken of as an " abnormality " ;
but nowadays biologists are familiar with the fact that no two individuals
of a given species are absolutely identical in all their parts — every organ,
both external and internal, may present some more or less profoimd differ-
ence when compared with other individuals, and these difierences are known
as " variations." In the blood-system, for example, although the main

Benham. — Occurrenct of Tiro Unusual Blood-vcsseU in Hyla avirea. 31

blood-vessels conform to a type in all tlie individuals of a species or even
genus, yet the mode of branching, the number of the branches, their size
and extent and distribution, are very rarely identical over a series of indi-
vidual specimens. So it is with other organs or systems of organs : some
of these " variations " are in the direction of loss of parts, or they may be
of additions of parts — new structures which suddenly appear without any
transition between them and the usual state of the organ. We call these
" mutations "" if they are hereditary, though in a large number of cases
it is impossible to determine whether this is so or not. But others of the
variations from the usual adult structure are due to the persistence of con-
ditions which are present in the embryo or in some lower member of the
group to which the species belongs, and which are usually lost during the
development, so as to be absent in the adult. Such persistent embryonic
structures are always of great interest. Two such cases were met with
amongst the adult frogs, Hyla aurea, dissected in my laboratory during this
session. Both of these conditions seem to be extremely rare, and, so far as
I have been able to consult the literature at my disposal, they appear to be
unique.

1. Persistence of the Third Branchial Aortic Arch.

On the 28th March one of my students called my attention to the
presence in the specimen she was dissecting of four arterial arches on each
side, in place of the normal three. The frogs had been injected so that
the students should be able to trace out the arterial system, and in the

Fig. 1. — Arterial aortic arches ( X 2) showing persistent third larval arch, m, portion

of petrohyoid muscle; I, small laryngeal arteiy.
Fig. 2. — Visceral veins in abnormal frog (from drawing by E. W. Hunt). The heart

is turned forwards to show the sinus venosus and the hepatic veins. Iv, the

unusual paired lateral (abdominal) vein; v\., the vesicular vein entering

the hepatic portal.

case under consideration the injection, performed by my assistant, Miss W.
Farnie, was particularly successful, so that even small branches were dis-
tended with the injection mass, such as the laryngeal and pharyngeal
arteries. The student had dissected out the arteries on the animal's right
side with great care, and only the internal carotid had been ruptured. The
other side she had scarcely touched when she directed my attention to its
condition.

32 Transactions.

The arrangement is as follows : The carotid and systemic arches are
normal, but the pulmo-cutaneous arch bifurcates close to its origin, the
posterior branch of which has the usual relations dividing into the pul-
monary artery and the cutaneous artery. It is the anterior of the two
branches which is exceptional, and appears to be the persistent tliird
branchial arterial arch of the tadpole. This anterior branch arises from
the base of the pulmo-cutaneous soon after it leaves the synangium : it is
equal in diameter to this arch, and runs parallel with the other arches
nearly to the point at w^iich the last arch divides to form the pulmonarv
artery and the cutaneous artery. But as it approaches this cutaneous
artery its diameter decreases and it bends backwards towards the fourth
arch, to which it is joined by a very slender vessel. It then bends forward
again and is continued into the cutaneous artery, alongside which runs as
usual the petrohyoid muscle, to which it gives off twigs. The relation of this
third arch to the cutaneous artery would suggest that the latter is derived
from it, were it not for the precise account of the development of the latter
given by Marshall. At the first bend of the arch is an angle as if a vessel
or ligament passed forwards to the systemic arch, but I can find no trace
of this. There is no connection between this third arch and either the
systemic arch or the dorsal aorta.

On the left side I find that the condition of affairs is essentially the
same, but the third arch is much more slender than on the right side.
Less injection has penetrated the vessel, which suggests that possibly some
resistance is exerted at the connection between it and the cutaneous artery.
Nevertheless, the connecting vessel is distinctly red with injection, but is
much narrower than its basal region. As on the right side, this third arch
bends backwards (more abruptly than is shown in the drawing, for it is
better seen when the arches are stretched apart) in order to reach the
cutaneous artery, which on this side is normal and of equal diameter
throughout its course.

The delicate pharyngeal artery, from the systemic arch, is plainly visible
in the specimen below the third arch, but I have omitted it from the
drawing for the sake of clearness.

According to Marshall,* during metamorphosis " the third aortic arch
in the third branchial arch of the tadpole atrophies altogether. In young
frogs of the first year it loses its connection with the aorta and then gradu-
ally shortens up, the distal end becoming a solid cord, and the proximal
or cardiac part retaining for a time its lumen. Before the end of the first
year this vessel has entirely disappeared."

In the larva this third afferent arch goes, of course, to a gill, and has
no connection distally with the fourth arch : it is this union on the ventral
surface that is rather puzzling in the present case, and especially the very
slender union between the cutaneous artery and the parent fourth arch.
It raises the question whether the ontogeny of the frog is really a true
recapitulation of the phylogeny of the Anura, or whether the cutaneous
artery is originally derived from the third arch, which in the embryology of
those species of frog that have been studied has imdergone some modifica-
tion, leaving the third to become connected with the fourth arch at some
stage in the history.

The cutaneous artery seems to be peculiar to the Anura, as no reference
is made to such an artery in any description of the anatomy of salamander

* A. M. M.\ESHALL, Vertebrate Embryology, p. 178, 1893.

Benham. — Occurrence of Tiro Unusual Blood -vesarlx in Hyla aurea. 33

or newt to whicli I have access {e.g., Bronn's Thierreich). In the sahi-
mander, as is well known, both the third and fourth arches persist, but
unite with the systemic to form the dorsal aorta.

As I have noted, the third arch in the case under consideration is not
connected on either side to the dorsal aorta or with the systemic arch.

2. Paired Lateral Abdominal Veins.

A frog dissected by one of my students on the 4:th April rather worried
him because there was no " anterior abdominal vein," and so he called my
attention to it. I was surprised to find that in place of this median vein this
frog possessed a pair of laterally situated veins each of which, arising from
the femoral vein of its side and running forwards in the body- wall, quite
laterally entered the precaval (anterior vena cava) of its side. On its way
it received two musculo-cutaneous veins, which normally in this species enter
the anterior abdominal vein at the level of the tendinous intersections of the
rectus abdominis muscle. These lateral veins had no relation to the portal
system, but the vesicular vein from the urinary bladder passed forwards to
enter the hepatic portal at the spot at which the abdominal vein normally
does so.

I can find no record of exactly this arrangement as occurring in the
frog, though cases of a right or left vein of somewhat similar relations
anteriorly have been described.

BuUer* found an abdominal vein which after a normal course from the
hinder part of the body as far as the liver, to which it sent a smaU branch,
bent outwards to the right side and entered the right superior vena cava,
or, as the figure shows, the subclavian.

The next case is that of Woodland,! where the abdominal vein is median
posteriorly but passes outwards to the left precaval (or subclavian). It
gives no branch to the liver.

In the next year O'Donoghuef described a frog with an abnormal heart
and with an abdominal vein similar to that described by Woodland.

These are the only instances of an abnormal condition of the abdominal
vein which I can find. In each of them the hinder end arises quite
normally from the union of the two femoro-abdominal or '' pelvic '" veins.
Each of these authors refers to the condition in Cemtodus, while Woodland
carries the comparison back to the paired lateral veins of the dogfish, which
homology was first suggested by Hochstetter in 1894.

In the present case this resemblance is very evident and precise. Here,
too, is an instance of the persistence of a larval condition, though with
certain differences in detail. Marshall§ writes thus : " The anterior
abdominal vein is at first paired and is in connection not with the liver, but
with the heart. The pair of vessels appears first in the ventral body-waU,
extending backwards a short distance from the sinus venosus ; they soon
extend farther backward and acquire a communication with the veins of
the hind legs and of the bladder. At a later stage the two veins unite at
the hinder end in front of the bladder, while farther forward the vein of
the right side disappears and the left one alone persists ; later still the

*A. H. R. Btjller, Journ. Anat. and Physiol., vol. 30, p. 211, 1896.
t W. Woodland, Zool. Anz., vol. 35, p. 626, 1910.
JC. H. O'DoNOGHUE, Zool. Anz., vol. 37, p. 35, 1911.
§ Loc. cit., p. 184.

2— Trans.

34 Transactions.

anterior abdominal vein loses its direct connection with the sinus venosus,
and acquires a secondary one with the hepatic portal system."

In the European frog Bombinator, which is closely allied to the New
Zealand frog Liopelma, Goette* had already described a similar course of
events, while Hochstetterf found in the larva of the salamander that the
two abdominal veins are at first separate for the greater part of their lengtli,
but unite near the liver to form a median vein which enters the left precaval
vein ; but with the absorption of the yolk this communication is lost and
a new one established with the hepatic portal system.

The occasional persistence in Rana of either a right or a left connection
with the sinus venosus by way of a precaval has already been emphasized
by Woodland and O'Donoghue.

That the present instance is not an exact recapitulation of the larval
condition is seen by the fact that the anterior end of the lateral vein on
each side is not connected with the sinus venosus but with the precaval,
which is apparently an earlier condition, as seen in the Elasmobranchs.

Art. IV. — Some Earthworms from Stephen Island and D'Urville Island.

By Professor W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.R.S., Hutton Memorial Medallist.

[Read before the Otugo Institute, 10th December, 1918 ; received by Editor, 30th
December, 1918 ; issued seixiratelij, 14th May, 1919.]

During the present year Dr. J. Allan Thomson visited these islands in
Cook Strait, and amongst the animals collected by him were a few earth-
worms, which he was good enough to send to me for identification.

No earthworms have hitherto been recorded from D'Urville Island,
though we are already acquainted with three species from Stephen Island.
Some were collected by Schauinsland during his visit in 1896-97, and others
by Thilenius ; and they have been described by Michaelsen (1) and by
Ude (2) respectively.

These three worms are Ociochaetus thomasi Beddard, Maoridrilus tetra-
gonurus Michaelsen, and Dinodrilus gracilis Ude. The first of these species
is a well-known and widely distributed South Island form, which was one of
the earliest of the New Zealand worms to be accurately described (3) ; the
other two species are so far confined to Stephen Island, though they belong
to genera which are known in the South Island and the North Island.

The present collection contains two out of these three species, and in
addition two new species of Maoridrilus, one from each of the islands,
together with a new species of Perieodrilus, a genus hitherto known only
from the mountains of the west coast of the South Island. So, as one
would expect, the Oligocliaet fauna of the two islands is mainly derived
from the South.

* A. Goette, Entwickel der Unke, 1875.

f F. HocHSTETTER, Morphol. Jahrbuch, vol. 21, p. 19, 1894.

Beniiam. — Earthworms from Stephen Island and D'U rville Island. 35

Octochaetus thomasi BecUlard.

Three individuals of this common South Ishand species were included in
the collection from Stephen Island.

Maoridrilus tetragonurus Michaelsen.

This handsome species is evidently tolerably common on Stephen Island,
as Michaelsen obtained four specimens. Ude speaks of several, and Dr.
Thomson sent me seven individuals collected during his brief visit.

The largest specimen in this last gathering measures 210 mm. in length,
which is not so long as those described by Ude, which attained as much
as 280 mm.

I have nothing to add to the two accounts given by these two zoologists.

M. megacystis n. sp.

A single specimen of a small worm measures 90 mm. in length, with a
diameter of 5 mm. ; but it is poorly preserved, so that its dimensions are
not accurately indicated by these figures.

Its colour is greyish-purple when preserved, and the clitellum has a
redder tone.

The clitellum is fairly well marked over segments 14-22 : that is to say,
the segments themselves are glandular, but the intersegmental furrows still
remain distinct.

The chaetae have the arrangement usual in the genus : the spaces aa,
he, and dd are practically equal, though aa is rather less than dd or he — at
any rate, behind the clitellum. Owing to the softness of the worm, it does
not show the squareness of the tail which is f o common in the genus.

Porophores are but feebly developed, and the ventral region of the
segments 17 and 19 between the porophores is depressed so that in the
18th segment a slight transverse pad is left on the ventral surface. The
spermatic grooves are convex mesially. and lie mediad of the ventral
chaetae, which are quite distinct here, and are not thrust out of line of
those in the neighbouring segments (as are those in the next species).

Internal Structure. — The septa separating the segments 8-14 are more
or less thickened.

The dorsal vessel is single throughout the worm ; the last heart is in
the 13th segment.

The gizzard lies in the 6th. This is its true or " morphological " posi-
tion, but, as is usually the case, it gets pushed backwards owing to the
fact that the preceding region, like the gizzard itself, is longer than the
segments to which it belongs.

There are large oesophageal glands in the 15th and 16th segments, and
a smaller pair in the 14th. They are subspherical dilatations of the tube
on each side, and the anterior two pairs meet their fellows above the gut.

The reproductive organs li' in the usual segments and in their normal
positions.

Each spermatheca (fig. 1) has a relatively enormous diverticulum, which
is as large as the ampulla — so large, indeed, that at first one thinks there
are four spermathecae. The diverticulum, further, is not racemose, as usual,
but has a smooth wall and a nearly globular form. When mounted, how-
ever, and viewed under the microscope one can see the outlines of the
characteristic chamberlets into which its cavity is divided ; but these walls
do not affect the surface.

2*

36

Transactions.

Another peculiar feature is that the duct of each of the two sacs opens
into a large muscular "" atrium," which in its turn opens to the exterior.

The penial sacs are large, and the penial chaetae long. These are
bluntly pointed, and the edges are curved upwards so as to form a short
shallow furrow extending a short distance from the apex (fig. 2). These
edges are ornamented with a few short bluntly pointed processes, but the
rest of the chaeta is smooth. I examined not only a fully developed chaeta,
but also one of the reserves, which exhibit precisely the same features, so
that the processes are not produced by wear of the edges.

Fig. 1. — Maoridrilus megacystis. Spermatheca. a, muscular " atrium "
common to the ducts of the ampulla and the diverticulum (rf) ; s, septum.

Fig. 2. — M. megacystis. Tip of a penial chaeta, imder a high power.

Fig. 3. — Maoridrilus iliomsoni. View of the ventral surface of segments 15-21
( X 4^), showing the characteristic " trough " and the position of the
ventral nephridiopores.

Fig. 4. — M. thomsoni. Spermatheca.

Fig. 5. — M. thomsoni. Penial chaeta.

Locality. — Stephen Island.

RefMirks. — The only species at present known in which the dorsal vessel
is single throughout the body is M. michaelseni Ude (2), which was collected
at Westport ; but in that species the diverticulum of the spermatheca is
quite small, its duct is narrow, and there is no " atrium " ; further, the
penial chaetae are quite different. The size of the diverticulum suggests
the specific name,

M. thomsoni n. sp.

Of this species also there is but a single individual, which seems to be
of about the same size as the previous species, but is in even a worse state
of preservation than it. It is damaged just behind the clitellum, and is
very soft. Its posterior end is missing, and there is as yet no sign of
tapering. We do not know, therefore, what is its length. The fragment
contains 198 segments and measures 65 mm. in length. The first 24 seg-
ments contribute 10 mm. to this.* Its diameter behind the clitellum is

* In the previous species this anterior region accounts for 25 mm., but I did not
make corresponding measurements of the other features, for I had opened it before
studying the present worm.

Benham. — E/7)'fItirnr?nii from Stephe?j Island aufl D'UrvilJf Islatul. 37

5 mm., but, as usual, is somewhat less at about the 7th segment, which
is but 4 mm. across, and less again at the genital region, which is only
3 mm. It is evident that these measurements do not give a true idea of
the dimensions.

The chaetae are equally spaced, so far as one can see on the animal.

The clitellum, though not yet thickened, seems to cover segments 16-20,
for the intersegmental furrows are evanescent. Probably when the worm is
mature the clitellum extends farther forward than this.

The spermathecal pores are conspicuous owing to their tumid lips.

There is one external feature in which this worm seems to show a
marked peculiarity. On the ventral surface of the segments 17-19 there
is a rather deep rectangular trough, with well-defined lateral and terminal
boundaries, while the non-glandular floor is marked by longitudinal foldings.
The appearance is that this ventral region is withdrawn by internal
muscles (fig. 3).

The longitudinal margins correspond to the level of the ventral couples
of chaetae, but on these segments, owing no doubt to the retraction of
the ventral region, which results in the formation of the trough, the ventral
chaetae and the nephridiopores are carried mediad of the line formed by
these structures in the neighbouring segments. Under a dissecting-lens
the chaetae themselves are not visible on these three segments, but the
ventral nephridiopores of segments 17 and 19 are quite conspicuous and
are out of the line.

The porophores lie within this lateral margin, and are not prominent.
They project rather into the trough from the sides than from its floor, so
that the pores face inwards towards the middle line.

The spermatic groove is very evident : its outer lip is formed on each
side by the edge of the lateral wall of the trough ; the inner lip is seen
lower down this wall.

Internal Structure. — I did not note any specially thickened septa, as
everything is so soft.

The dorsal vessel is single throughout the worm ; the last heart is in
the 13th segment.

The gizzard belongs morphologically to the 6th, for the septum 5/6
is inserted at its hinder end ; but its " apparent " position is in the 8th
and 9th segments — that is, a transverse line across the body as dissected,
passing over its anterior end, cuts through the intersegmental furrow 7/8,
and its posterior end lies at the transverse line through 9/10.

Oesophageal glands are large and spherical, and meet above the tubes
in 14th and 15th, while in the 16th is a smaller gland ; the intestine
commences in segment 20.

The spermatheca has a large ampulla (larger actually than that of the
previous species) with a narrow duct, which carries a small racemose
diverticulum of the form usual in the genus (fig. 4).

The penial sac, and consequently the copulatory chaetae, are not nearly
so long as usual. This, I think, is to be accounted for by the external
trough, which probably aids in the process of copulation in this species,
as it appears to do in certain other families of worms. But I can detect
no " arcuate " muscles in these segments. The penial sac is not only
relatively, but absolutely, smafler than in the previous species. Here it
is scarcely longer than the length of the segment, whereas in M. megacystis
it extends across the body-wall half-way towards the dorsal mid-hne.

38 Transactions.

The penial ehaeta (fig. 5) is slender, curved, and slightly swollen just
below the apex, whose sharp point is slightly bent up to form a hook ;
it has no perceptible furrow. The sides are not ornamented by rows of
minute teeth as in M. michaelseui, but in certain lights some five or six
faint transverse lines can be made out just below the swollen region.

Locality. — DUrville Island.

Remarks. — This species certainly has some resemblances to M. michael-
seni, especially in the possession of a depression on the segments 17-19.
But from it the present species differs in one or two features that seem
to be specific. The gizzard, which in that species is said to occupy the
two segments 6 and 7, here lies only in the 6th. I was careful to trace
out the septa as above described.

The oesophageal glands, four in number, are said by Ude to be " small."
The penial chaetae are described as " long," " spoon-shaped," and orna-
mented with very fine teeth in transverse rows ; and, though the tip is
curved, its curvature is in the other direction, and there is no swelling below
the apex. Thinking that perhaps this last feature was due to pinching
w^ith the forceps, I examined a " reserve," or undeveloped, ehaeta, which
I find exhibits the same subterminal enlargement.

Ude also speaks of the penial sac as being " absent." I have noted
its very small size, and it may be that in a well-hardened specimen it
would not project within the body- wall.

Had it not been, however, for the distinctness between the form of
the penial chaetae in the two forms, I should have regarded this as merely
a variety of Ude's species.

Perieodrilus durvilleanus n. sp.

A single individual was received, which unfortunately is immature.

A brick-red worm, with its mid-dorsal line of much deeper tone than
elsewhere ; each segment is marked by a number of white spots, in each of
which is a ehaeta.

Length, 108 mm,; diameter, 6 mm,; with 117 segments. The body
is cylindrical, with scarcely any tapering at the hinder end.

The prostomium is tanylobic.

There are some 20-24 chaetae on each side of each segment. They
are not in definite couples, but are more or less equidistant, though here
and there a ehaeta is absent.

The dorsal '" gap " is about one-third the width of the ventral gap.

Dorsal pores are present, but I failed to note at what segment they
commence. No nephridiopores are visible under the dissecting-lens, owing,
I believe, to the softness of the wall.

There is no sign of a clitellum. On the 17th and 19th segments,
outside the ventralmost ehaeta on each side, is a faintly expressed papilla,
recognizable in its immature condition by its pink colour in contrast
with the nearly white colour of the surrounding skin. No spermatic groove
is as yet present.

Internal Structure. — The septa behind the segments 9 to 13 or 14 are
thicker than the rest

The dorsal vessel is double throughout the worm ; enlarged hearts
in 10th to 13th segments.

The gizzard is long, lying apparently in the 7th and 8th, but in reality
it belongs to the 6th and iiossibly partly to the 7th.

BenhaM. — En rth iriirm.^ from Stephen Ishiiid and D'J^rrilh Iddiid. 39

The oesophageal pouches or glands are four pairs, in segments 10, 11,
12, and 13: each is a subglobular outgrowth marked by a series of
vertical lines which indicate the attachment of internal folds or lamellae.
They are quite lateral in position and do not overlap the gut.

The mtestine commences in the 18th segment.

The gonads occupy the usual position on the hinder face of the septa
of their respective segments, inserted close to the attachment of the septa
to the body-wall. The prostates are as yet very small but quite distinct
under a lens, and are of the usual form ; the muscular ducts are recurved.
There are no penial sacs, and at present no transverse muscles in these
segments such as are present' in the mature stage of the other species.

The spermathecae occupy the usual position : each consists of a pointed
ovate sac, or " ampulla," with a short stout duct, into the anterior face
of which opens a bifid diverticulum, the free ends of which lie at the right

-OJV.n.nj!''.- J" -1 , .f\<?-,<v<\

^-f*-'' .. t\.C\ri ts ."..

-.yf^if ^'.^f^

"^ ■-"n(?(l'''^l

IZ

15

'i>lfif^- ^X^='l^-'-^''^l>S--

m " 'W^^^ ' "/s~'^^Ok- '-^^ w^Jl^p,

8

Fig. 6. — Peneodrilus durvilleanus. Spermatheca. The dotted circles on the
diverticula indicate the chamberlets, which are visible only when the
organ is cleared.

Fig. 7. — P. durvilleanus. The left side of segments 8 and 9, showing the
spermathecae, nephridial tuft and its lateral extension, and in the latter
segment the sperm-sac (s). The median line is towards the right side.

Fig. 8. — P. durvilleanus. The left half of segments 12 and 1.5, showing the
gradual dissolution of the nephridial tuft and its extension dorsalwards.

and left sides of the ampulla (fig. 6). Externally they appear simple,
but when mounted and viewed as transparent objects the internal
chamberlets are visible. In this condition the diverticulum appears as
a semicircular collar round the duct, much as I have figured it for
P. ricardi (5) ; but seen in the animal the distinctness of the two long
processes of the diverticulum is very evident.

There are four pairs of sperm-sacs, in segments 9, 10, 11, 12.
The two anterior sacs have at present the form of long white slender
cylindrical tubes resting against the hinder septa of the segments (fig. 7) ;
each terminates upwards in a rounded end, and is attached ventrally to
the septum close to the body-wal- and nerve-cord. The two posterior
sacs are shorter, wider, and lie along the anterior wall of their segments
(fig. 8) : in short, they have the usual position, but are at present only
commencing to form.

40 Transactions.

The Nephridia. — From the 2nd to the 14th segments, inchisive, the
nephridium is represented by a conspicuous tuft of minute looping tu])ules
arranged in such a way as to form a sort of " rosette " close to the nerve-
cord and occuj^ying nearly the whole length of its segment. It is thus
a more or less rounded or quadrate mass of tubules. These tufts are
much larger in the more anterior segments, and in the 2nd, 3rd, and
4th seem to represent the entire organ, but farther back one sees that
the tubules are not confined to these tufts but extend outwards along the
body-wall for a short distance as a linear series of isolated loops near
the septa (fig. 7). In about the 7th-llth I believed that under a high-
power dissecting-lens I could detect a duct or tube passing outwards,
and ending apparently on the body-wall about half-way up the side
of the body. I therefore cut out, stained, and mounted a portion of
the side of the body, including the segments 7-11, in the hope of being
able to satisfy myself as to the locality of the pore ; but I was unsuc-
cessful. The body- wall is too soft to allow such a small aperture to be
recognized.

I then mounted the cuticle of these segments, but was no more
successful, for, though the large spermathecal pores and the linings
of the chaetiferous follicles are perfectly evident, there is no pore that I
could interpret as being the nephridiopore.

Sections were equally useless, owing, as I believe, to the soft condition
of the specimen.

To continue the internal appearance : The dissolution of the tuft of
the tubules, which commences about the 7th segment, continues till at the
15th almost all the loops are arranged in the linear series (fig. 8), and by
the 17th I fail to see any tuft or rosette. At the 20th I am unable to
detect any loops under a lens, but by picking up at random the tissue
that lies between the septa I find under the microscope that it consists
of minute nephridial tubules with accompanying blood-vessels.

I was unable to detect any funnel, but the poor state of the tissue
has rendered it difficult to make as thorough an investigation on this
important point as is necessary.

However, it is clearly, 1 think, a " meganephric " worm such as I have
previously described.

Locality. — D'Urville Island.

Remarks.~The genus Perieodrilus (which Michaelsen has separated
from my Plagiochaeta) (4) is so far confined to the mountains of the
West Coast : it is therefore not surprising that a representative occurs
in this island.

It is evident that the present species is nearly related to P. montanus
and to P. ricardi (5), but from each it differs in one or more features.
Externally its coloration recalls that of the former, as also in the con-
centration of the nephridial loops near the ventral region of the body (6) ;
but in P. montanus the gonads are situated on the posterior wall of their
segments, in P. ricardi they are on the ventral wall midway between the
septa. Only in P. lateralis are they in their normal anterior position as
in the present species, but in that worm there are no oesophageal glands
and only two pairs of sperm-sacs. In the two other species, while there
are four pairs of sperm-sacs, there is only one pair of oesophageal glands.
The form of the spermathecal diverticulum Hkewise differs from that in
the known species.

Benham. — hearth irortns from Stephen Islaiul and D'Urvillf Island. 41

References.

1. W. MiCHAELSEN, Oligocli. V. d. Inselii des Pacific, Zool. Jahrb. (System), vol. \2,

p. 230, 1899 ; and Ude (2), p. 413.

2. H. Ude, Terricole Oligoch. v. cl. Inseln d. Sudsee, u.s.w., Zeit. fur M'iss. Zool.. vol. 83,

p. 4(t5. 1905.

3. F. E. Beddard, On some New SiDecies of Earthworms, &c., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lomlon,

p. 671, 1892.

4. W. B. Benham, Notes on two Acanthrodriloid Earthworms from New Zealand,

Quart. Journ. Micr. ScL, vol. 33, p. 289, 1892.
.5. W. B. Benham, On the Old and some New Species of Eai'thworms belonging to the

Genus Plagiorhaefa, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 35, p. 277, 1903.
*i. W. B. Benham and G. Cameron, The Nephridia of Ferieodrilus. Trans. N.Z. Inst.,

vol. 45, p. 191, 1913.

Art. V. — :0n the Occurrence of Three Bands of Marble at South Peak,

near Hampden, Otago.

By Professor James Park, F.G.S.

{Read before the Olacjo Institute, 10th December, I'JIS ; received by Editor, 27th
December, 1918 ; issued separately, lith May, 1919.]

In the early part of last November, while investigating the extension of
the Shag Point beds to the landward side of Hampden, I was informed by
Mr. A. Craig, of that place, that an attempt had been made some twenty
years ago to burn limestone in a kiln somewhere near the upper end of
Baghdad Road. As the result of two days' search, with the assistance of
Mr. Craig, I found a small outcrop of a grey crystalline limestone on the
north side of Skinner's
Creek, at an altitude of
450 ft. above the sea, at
a point about 300 yards
from Baghdad Road.
The outcrop had been
opened out by blasting,
and I concluded that this
was the place from which
the material for the ex-
perimental burning had
been excavated. I con-
tinued the search towards
South Peak, and suc-
ceeded in discovering
three well-defined bands
of limestone, two on the
south side of Skinner's
Creek and one on the

north. These bands are interbedded in the altered argillite that forms the
core of the coastal range lying behind Hampden. They strike almost north
and south (true), and dip east at angles that vary from 50° to 65°.

Band A is about 5 ft. thick ; band B, 12 ft. ; and band C about 2 ft.
Bands B and C are separated from one another by 32 ft. of argillite.
Band A, geologically the lowest, is perhaps 200 ft. below band B.

J4-00

20

>

40

I

60

^ycciJe ^f chains .

®Smilk P^nJc

A, B, and C, lenses of limestone.

42 Trcnisacfions.

When traced along the outcrop the limestone bands are found to occur
as short lenses. Band A is a lens about 450 yards long, and bands B and C
peter out in a distance of 70 yards.

Like the blue crystalline limestone at Dunback, the Hampden limestone
bands occur in the semi-metamorphic rocks of the Kakanui series of Hector,
the age of which is still unknown. The relationship of the Hampden and
Dunback limestones can be determined only by a detailed survey.

The Hampden limestone is a fine-grained grey marble of good quality.
The larger blocks will form good building-material, and the small pieces
may be utilized for grinding into material for agricultural purposes.

An average sample of marble from the lens marked A on the
accompanying sketch was analysed at the Dominion Laboratory, Wel-
lington, with the following results : —

Insoluble in acid . . . . . . . . 0"86

Alumina and iron oxide . . . . . . 0'55

Magnesium carbonate . . . . . . 0"56

Calcium phosphate . . . . . . . . 0"17

Calcium carbonate (CaCOg) by difierence . . 97*86

100-00
I am indebted to the Director of the Geological Survey for obtaining the
above analysis for me.

Art. VI. — A Preliminary Investigation of the Age and Manner of
Growth of Brown Trout in Canterbury, as shown by a Microscojyic
Examination of their Scales.

By M. H. CtOdby, M.A., B.Sc.

{Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th September, 1918; received by
Editor, 20th September, 1918 ; 'issued separately, 14ih May, 1919.]

Plates I-VL

The possibility of determining the age of fish by a microscopic examina-
tion of their scales was first demonstrated in 1899 by Hoffbauer (3), who
made a special study of carp-scales.

The same principle was applied to salmon-scales by Johnston (4) in
three papers published in the 23rd, 25th, and 26th Annual Eeports of the
Fishery Board for Scotland. Johnston further demonstrated that it was
possible to trace the whole life-history of a salmon from its scales, and to
say with tolerable certainty how long the fish had spent in fresh water as
a " parr," at what age it had become a " sniolt " and migrated to the sea,
whether it had re-entered fresh water to spawn, and, if so, the approximate
dates of its re-entries and returns to the sea.

Working on the same lines, Dahl (1) made a most careful study of salmon
and trout scales in Norway, and showed that, in addition, it was possible
to calculate with considerable accuracy the length attained by the fish
each year of its existence.

The fundamental fact on which these investigations are based is that
carp, salmon, and trout — and, indeed, most if not all kinds of fish — each year

GoDBY. — (jfroirfJi of Broini Trout in ('a/iferburi/. 43

pass through a period of rapid growtli followed by a period of comparative
stagnation. This periodic growth has generally been attributed to changes
of temperature and corresponding changes in the abundance of food-sujiply ;
and in regard to many species of fish it has been demonstrated that the
maximum rate of growth roughly coincides with the maximum temperature
of the water. There is evidence, however, to show that this periodic growth
is well marked in the scales of some deep-sea fish, which can hardly be
subject to any marked seasonal changes of temperature, and in the case
of the squeteague {Cynoscion regalis) Taylor (6) has shown that the period
of stagnation roughly coincides with the spawning season in midsummer.
It seems probable, therefore, that the period of stagnation is determined
more by a voluntary fast during the spawning season than l)y any actual
shortage of food, and that individuals which have not arrived at sexual
maturity subject themselves to this annual fast, though not to the same
extent as the mature specimens. This voluntary-fast theory is further
borne out by the observations of Masterman (5), who in a most careful
critic|ue of the previous work on salmon points out that a certain number
of salmon captured at sea throughout the summer show no evidence of
summer feeding. He concludes that some salmon start their spawning-
fast many months before entering fresh water. This may cause the age
of salmon to be underestimated in some cases, and certainly throws grave
doubt on Johnston's claim that he can tell approximately the month of
entering fresh water. In the case of trout there is no evidence of prolonged
fasts, except during the spawning season, which occurs in midwinter, and
it is of little importance whether the cause be lack of appetite or lack oJ'
food. There is some evidence to show that in Canterbury the u\aximum
rate of growth, especially amongst the larger fish, occurs in spring rather
than in summer. It is probably quite safe to assume, however, that the
period of stagnation occurs in the winter.

Roughly speaking, a trout-scale (Plate I, fig. 1) consists of a transparent
plate of more or less elliptical form, having its centre of growth approxi-
mately at one of the foci. Surrounding this and roughly concentric with
the outer edge of the scale are a number of lines or " circuli." The scale
grows by the addition of these circuli round the periphery, which are added
in greater numbers and more widely spaced during the periods of rapid
growth. This alternate spacing and crowding produces light and dark
zones, one light and one dark corresponding to a complete year's growth.
The dark zones are called "' annuli," or " winter bands."

In the case of spawning fish the stagnation is more complete, and the
winter band is narrower and more clearly defined. In salmon (Salmo salar)
the act of spawning leaves a clearly defined scar or " spawning-mark " on
the scales, due to disintegration or reabsorption of the scale, especially along
the lateral edges and the outer surface containing the circuli. A true
spawning-mark is not very common in trout, but the character of the
winter bands gives a fairly reliable indication of spawning. Plate I, fig. 1,
shows one such winter band.

The exact cause of the spawning-mark in salmon is still in dispute.
Johnston (4) attributed it to the vicissitudes of river life, whereby the fish
shrank in girth, and says, '" The compression of imbricated scales tends
to increase the amount of overlap, and from this or dermic influences we find
that their margins become ragged or frayed." Masterman (5) has shown
that this fraying or erosion in many cases starts long prior to the fish's
entry into fresh water, and concludes that the phenomenon is one of

44 Transactions.

'■ erosion or absorption by the living tissue which is known to envelop the
scale." Two possible explanations are suggested : " The process may be
an anticipatory reduction of the size of the scale to meet the approachin»
reduction in the girth of the body, or it may be connected directly with
the formation and development of the ova."

In Canterbury the spawning-mark is by no means so uncommon in
trout as it appears to be in England and Norway. With male fish of con-
siderable size (say, over 24 in.) it is rather the exception to find scales that
do not show a definite spawning-mark — at any rate, in the Selwyn River
(see Plate III, fig. 2). In females the act of spawning seems to leave a less
decided scar, and most of the cases come within the region of uncertainty
mentioned by Masterman, and introduce the personal element. In handling
a large number of spawning fish this year, whilst collecting scales, I found
that I could in almost every case detect the males by the texture of the
skin. The males had a thick tough outer skin, and great difficulty was
experienced in removing the scales, whilst no such covering was present
in the females, and the scales were easily removed. Under the microscope
the scales themselves were in many cases readily distinguished, those of
the males being very much more eroded than those of the females. The
ripe testes form a very much smaller proportion of the total weight of a male
than the ripe ova of a female, so it is natural to suppose that the wastage
of tissue in producing the former would be less than in producing the latter,
and the shrinkage in milting is certainly less than in spawning, yet the
scale-erosion is greater in males. All this seems to suggest that scale-
erosion at spawning-time, in trout at any rate, is intimately connected
with the production of the thick tough skin assumed by the males. Dahl
has noticed that the erosion of scales in spawning salmon is more pronounced
in the males, but apparently attaches no significance to his observation.
In many cases it is a matter of opinion whether there is a spawning-mark
corresponding to any particular winter on a trout-scale, but of the thirteen
tagged fish from which I have scales every one shows, if not a distinct
spawning-mark, at least a sharply defined winter band, such as the third
winter band in Plate I, fig. 1, corresponding to the winter when the fish
was stripped and tagged. I think it is probable that such winter bands
are tolerably reliable evidence of spawning, but there is an almost perfect
gradation from the broad ill-defined bands of the first two winters in
Plate I, fig. 1, and many cases must always remain doubtful.

Dahl (1) assumed that the scales grew in the same projiortion as the
fish, and consequently that the distances from the centre of growth to the
successive winter bands would be m the same ratio as the lengths attained
by the fish in each successive winter. This assumption was almost in the
nature of a corollary from what was previously known of the formation
of winter bands, but experimental proof was desirable. Dahl and others
have collected such a wealth of indirect evidence in favour of this hypo-
thesis that there is little danger in accepting it as the basis of my
investigations. Direct evidence, however, is difiicult to obtain, and is-
meagre. As the whole of the present investigation depends on the truth
of Dahl's hypothesis, it will be as well to add my small quota, more
especially as Masterman and others have raised the objection that direct
evidence is almost, if not entirely, lacking.

The North Canterbury Acclimatization Society annually strips a number
of trout in the Selwyn River for piscicultural purposes, and takes the
opportunity to tag two or three hundred fish each year with a small silver

GoDBY. — Growth of Brown Trout in (Janterhiiry .

45

label bearing a distinctive number ; at the same time particulars of length,
weight, and sex are recorded. Through the kindness of the society, and
of anglers who have had the good fortune to recapture tagged fish, I have
secured scales from thirteen of these fish when recaptured, and have
calculated from these scales the length of each fish when tagged.

The following table shows the length when recaptured ; the length
{a) actual, measured at time of tagging, and (6) calculated from the scales ;
tosether with the difference in each case between the calculated and the
measured lengths : —

Tagged Length.

Log No.

Tag. No.

Lens;th
when

^Difference.

recaptured.

(a) Measured.

(6) Calculated.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inch.

B 25

1101

2U

191

20

\

B 26

1074

21

20

19f

i

B 27

1037

21

20

191

\

B 28

1088

221

20

20

0

B 136

1374

23

211

21i

0

BUT

1401

28

27

271

I

B 159

1398

21

20

20

0

B236

1095

211

19

19i

't '

B246

1352

221

21

21

0

B 2.53

1346

221

21

21i

1

4

B277

1428

201

19

18f

i

B278

1380

221

21i

21f

1

B284

1304

21

19

m

'i r

In no case is the difference between the calculated and the measured
length more than ^ in., and in only three cases is it so much, whilst in four
cases the agreement is exact. Considering the difficulty of measuring
two or three hundred live fish accurately, these results may be taken to
fall well within the limits of experimental error in measuring. In practice
the fish are generally measured to the nearest i in., and an error of j in.
at time of tagging and another J in. when recaptured would be sufficient
to account for the largest discrepancy of h in.

Two scales taken from one of these fish (tag No. 1374) at different
times are shown (Plate II. figs. 1 and 2). The scale in Plate II, fig. 1,
was taken on the 17th June, 1917, when the fish was tagged, and
measured 21| in. The scale in Plate II, fig. 2, was taken on the 28th
October, 1917, when the fish was recaptured, and meavsured 23 in. The
lengths each winter, calculated from a set of scales taken in June and a

set of scales taken in October, are as follows :—

-

Winters

1 J 2 3

1 !

i

4 5

(i

7

June scales (inches) . . 5
October scales (inches) . . ' 4^

8*

IH i7i
14J 17

19i 1 2U*

19 2l| 23*

* Actual measured length.

46 T runsactions.

Two fairly well-defined spawning-marks are shown in Plate II, fig. 2,
and the space between the outer spawning-mark and the edge of the
scale represents the growth of the fish between June and October. This
growth (1| in.) certainly appears large as against 2^ in. for the whole of the
previous year. It seems, however, to be a pretty general rule that the most
vigorous growth takes place in the spring, and very little after midsummer,
except perhaps in quite young fish. It should also be noted that the
posterior end of this scale is well developed. This is usually a characteristic
of vigorous growth, and this portion of the scale is usually the first to be
eroded when deterioration sets in.

It has been objected that scales are not permanent, but are shed and
replaced by new scales. There may have been something in this objection
until Dahl pointed out that scales with the so-called " expanded centre
of growth " were in reality " replacement scales,'" and supplied the con-
necting-link in a drawing of a scale which had been displaced in its socket
but not actually lost. Plate I, fig. 2, shows a particularly fine example
of such a " displacement scale," and is of itself almost convincing proof that
normally scales are retained throughout a trout's life, and grow with the fish
by additions round the outer edge.

The Matekial.

The material examined consists of three samples comprising respec-
tively 33, 140, and 65 fish taken from the Selwyn River on the occasion
of the annual stripping by the Acclimatization Society in 1915, 1917, and
1918 respectively, and smaller samples from several other rivers and lakes.
I shall deal with each separately.

Selwyn River.

Table I (A) gives the complete figures for thirty-three fish, all males,
stripped in the Selwyn in June, 1915. The scales were collected by
Dr. C. Morton Anderson, who kindly handed them over to me. It is
interesting to note that these scales had been simply folded up in paper
for nearly two years when I received them, and had not deteriorated
during that time.

The second parcel of scales was taken by myself on the 17th June, 1917,
and consists of scales from 140 fish, all being females except one, a
particularly large male weighing 10 lb. The full figures are given in
Table I (B).

The average growth-curves are shown in fig. 1. The curve for the
1915 fish is a broken line, and that for the 1917 fish a continuous line. On
the same diagram are also shown the curves for 173 fish from Lake Mjosen,
in Norway, plotted from figures given in Dahl's book. The broken line
again is the curve for males, the continuous line for females. In each case
the males continue vigorous growth for a longer period than the females,
and eventually outstrip them. As the males were from fish taken in 1915
and the females from fish taken in 1917, I thought it desirable to test this
apparent difference between the sexes further, and with that object col-
lected scales from twenty-nine males and thirty-six females at the annual
stripping this winter (1918). The full figures are given in Tables I (C)
and I (l5). The average growth-curves are shown in fig. 2. Again the
raales continue vigorous growth longer and attain a greater size than the
females.

GoDBV. — G'ruivf/i (jf Blown Troiif in Canterhmn.

47

'

^^

^'

^,

y

,,

30

_^''

y

^

y y

— "

y y

!S

y

^ y

zs

y /

y

^ •'

'■'"/

eo

^

'^■wvN

so

-^ *>

g.U^'^J_-

- //

- f<>

■ — "

^ <

yy.^

„

," ^

'

■'<n^

.- y

''^^

0

/^

m

y

x>'t''

/y

yv

//

/

//

y

^y

.y^

/<>

y

y

^

Z'

.^

,

X

^^

y^

^

6

J

^

/y

/.

//

^ J-

^

/^ ^o^^

'

p

^^

o

Fig. 1.

J*

i

A?

„

50

**5

^l

—

— —

zs

?f

,

--"

7f

^^

. — ■ —

zo

.

BO

t9
IS
17

to
/S
/♦
/J
/^

/

—

y

^ — ^

y' ^

J

' ^

c

/

/ /

/ /

//

//

/o

9

a

6
S

t

3

//

y

/

X

/

/

/

/

/

o

/.

n

Fig.

48

Transactions.

From the AccUmatization Society's records I have calcrJated the
average length of the fish tagged each year since 1915. The figures in
parentheses give the number of fish measured : —

1915— Males, 20-8 in. (100) ; females, 20-1 in. (98).

1916— Females, 19-3 in. (199).

1917— Females, 20-4 in. (140).

1918— Males, 22-6 in. (66) ; females, 21-5 in. (156).
In the years 1915 and 1918, when both sexes were tagged, the males
averaged about 1 in. longer than the females. The average lengths of the
samples from which I took scales are as follows : —

1915— Males, 21-3 in. (33).

1917— Females, 20-4 in. (140).

1918— Males, 22-5 in. (29) ; females, 21-7 in. (36).
These figures agree closely with the averages for the total fish measured,
so the samples were in all probability fairly representative. The year
1918 was remarkable both for the number and large size of the spawning
fish. The average ages [see Tables I (A) to I (F)] indicate that the males
either have a shorter life, or cease to run up the river at an earlier age.
This bears out the general belief that the spawning mortality is greater
amongst the males.

.w

in

V

1$
25

£9

7t

ST

?•;

?i

^^^^

eo

f»

19
il

IS

/5

f*

/3

?o

^■^

^ /

/

/

f^

r

/

/

^^

A

„

^

fO

■^ /

10

9

tt
7

y

/

/

/

/ .

f

t

'' /

■T

^

s

S

^^

»

//

/X

//

^

J

o

Fig. 3.

A point to notice in these curves is that they are nearly straight lines
for the first four years. This does not mean that each individual fish
increases in length by approximately the same amount each year up to
four years old. So far as my experience goes, growth of this character
is almost unknown amongst trout in Canterbury, although such apparently
is not the case in Norway. In Canterbury I have found that unless some
outside influence is at work the rate of growth almost invariably starts
to decrease quite appreciably in the third year, and this decrease is

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate I.

Mfi^

pec

22 -JO

l~~

r-t

1-^

S

^

.^

f-i

cS

o

-*j

>

fS

^

<D

ri

>

t

s

o

cS

cc

■;;3

-B

a;

'V*

h-H

?

g

>.

3

"*

H-H

n

_C

®

le

o

o

CI

M

T

;;

0+

-t^

f-*

•+-J

C

p

O

o

-4^

-5

?

a;

o

,^

1 — 1

w

1

^-

!

o

6

1 — 1

l-H

if'ace ]>. 4S.]

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate II.

CN

O
o

■? W

— 'CD

1^ —

l-"^

_ ■■—

'—

— .s

'^'^

w -H

t^

o 1*

^

o

-Z. o

^

X 0

^^

CI a.

^

tT ^

-4-i

t^

.:: o

1

2^ "

r -»-i

>

i'l

f-J-i

^

^^

^

>

*' ^

p-

M ^

o;

o ^

•».

^ o

M

^ +3

^

>i

Pi

=s

s

»

Si)>.^

.\

o

r-^ ^

4^

• ^

o

, ^

--^.■M

r^

S 'V:

f— '

■^ *P

'M

. .. .^

"~

CI *^

i*--

o

?

- O

^

c

"ti

"k

3 6C

P

' — ;

? '-^

C

^t~^ n

1

1

P? M

HR

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vor.. LI.

Plate III.

mMw' "^>^»..

'\

OJ

ffi

IS t;

o

;_^

Oj

.^

ce

^

i>

fi

■-(-(

o

cj

-fci

ctf

"

a

-^

'-'

r^

tiiD

g

■g

fc/i

Q

M

■g

r^

> ^ ' — '

3 7. ^

r;

;^

■ ■

Q

rH

>

■ -H

--^i

■■^

•.C

-n

^

-

"*

g

.^

(~-

bf)

— tt

'""

.;;3

•M

VI

&

•

•^

ci

re

; v»

—

^^

-^

^~

.

^

2

f-

^

^

o

^

0

p

?Q

?^

-;

'm'

d

3

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate IV.

OJ

c « I— I

o

,2,

o cS

o

O

T3
■?

^

^ o

QO

^

o

.i-.

o

r-^

01!

Ci

1— 1

*.

h-1

..^

■-^

00

c5

C

02

^

cS

C^

C3

rr,

tol

C>)

s

;h

^

o

o

>

-t^

K

.^

p^

-^

' .^ -.-^

02

P^

S P '^i V

be - f^.^

cc ■> ^= _^,^_"o

, 1 ,-t oi

0+ Tjf

g

? — :::;'? <^

O C ^ C ^

GoDBT. — Growth of Brouui Trout in Canterbury. 49

more marked in the fourth year. A close examination of the figures in
Tables I (A) to I (F) will show that in practically every case there is one
year for each fish in which it has made more than normal growth ; it may
be the second, third, fourth, or fifth year, but in almost every case there
is this break in the growth-curve. This sudden jump or break is generally
attributed to migration to more favourable surroundings, and there is every
reason to believe that this is the case with the Selwyn fish. Practically
all the spawning in the Selwyn takes place in the shallow, shingly part.
Except in the spawning season, fish of any considerable size are rare in this
part of the river. The traps are set just about the junction of the shallow
water and the deep, to catch the fish working up to the spawning-beds.
Consequently every fish caught has come from the deep water. Probably
every fish was hatched and spent its early youth in the shallow part of the
river ; therefore at some period it must have migrated to deep water. An
examination of its scales will generally disclose when that migration took
place The average curves, therefore, are really compounded of a number
of different curves representing one-, two-, three-, four-, and possibly five-
and six-year-old migrants. In fig. 3 are shown typical curves for a two-
year-old and a four-year-old migrant. Plate III, figs. 1 and 2, show
scales from these fish respectively, in which the period of better growth
subsequent to migration is very distinctly shown. Whenever an average
growth-curve closely approximates to a straight line for four or five
years it is a fairly definite indication that the fish from that locality are
migratory.

Table I (E) shows the figures for thirteen trout caught last summer
with rod and line at the mouth of the Selwyn and other streams running
into Lake Ellesmere. The average rate of growth is about the same as
that of the 1915 males, or intermediate between those of the 1918 males
and females.

In order to ascertain whether results in any way reliable could be
obtained from smaller samples I calculated the average growth for the
first, second, third, &c., twenty fish in Table I (B). Considering the very
complex nature of the water, the agreement is quite satisfactory, and
indicates that results. of some value can be obtained from quite small
samples.

Trout in the Selwyn, whatever the mode of growth, seem to have a more
or less fixed limit of growth at about 23 in., which is rarely exceeded.
Other waters also seem to show a maximum size-limit. It is curious,
however, that this limit is occasionally considerably exceeded, and not
necessarily by very old fish. These abnormally large fish, so far as I can
ascertain, show no peculiarity of growth common to all, but their scales
seem on the average unusually broad in proportion to their length, though
I am at present unable to state this definitely. Whether the large size is
determined by heredity or by unusually favourable environment I cannot
say, though I am inclined to attribute it to the former. It is certainly
a point worthy of further investigation. Particulars of five of these
abnormally large fish are given in Table I (F).

Rivers.
From the angling point of view the rivers of Canterbury may be
divided into two classes — snow rivers and rain rivers. The former contain
large trout, for the most part, of sea-going habits ; the latter comparatively
small trout, which are not as a general rule migratory.

50

Transactions.

The material which I have examined up to the present consists of a
quite inadequate number of fish from several rivers of each class.

In Table II particulars are given of thirty-five fish from the Cam, North
Branch of the Waimakariri, Styx, Selwyn No. 2, Opihi, and Tengawai,
all of which I class as rain rivers. There are individual dift'erences, but the
average rate of growth in all these is very similar. The average for the
whole thirtv-five fish is —

Winters

1

2

3

4

5

6

Inches

4-6

9-0

12-0

13-7

14-7

17-7

In Table III particulars are given of nineteen fish from the Ashley,
Waimakariri, and Rakaia. The figures for the Ashley and the Rakaia
agree very closely, but the figures for the Waimakariri are nearer to those
for the rain rivers. The probable reason for this is that four out of the
seven fish were taken from the Belfast branch of the river, which is
frequently very low, and probably contains only a small percentage of
sea-going fish. The average for the whole nineteen fish is —

Winters

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9

Inches

4-7 9-7 14-3 1 17-1

19-7 21-1

19-5

21-5 22-7

^1

^ J ♦

f i 7 » s ,e 1

f^

--

i-

^1

^^

^^

»

"

"i

.

"

£3

^^--^

.^

-'

,^

^^ — "^

■^ — ^

..,-

eO

_^

"

^^

-'

„

.'"

:,

• '

^

-,

..

^

X

'^

,^^

/s

r-'

-^— -^

'

^^

y

^^

1-=

■/ ^

„

/o

f

/ ^

/^

X

y^

//

-

y

^■

yJ'

s

/

s

_/

/

a

/

i

/

0

/

o

Fig. 4.

The averages for seven-, eight-, and nine-year-old fish are the figures
for one fish only, an old jack from the Rakaia, which showed no sign of
ever having been in the sea. The growth-curves plotted from these figures
are shown together in fig. 4 for comparison — the rain-river fish by a
continuous line, the snow-river fish by a broken line.

The points to notice are that, although the rate of growth is approximately
the same in each class for the first two years, the rain-river fish fall off

GoDBY. — (jrrowth uf Broirn Trout in t'd/itt rbtiri/. 51

rapidly in the third, fourth, and fifth years, whilst in the snow-river fish
a good growth is maintained. The growth-curve for the snow-river fish
is a typical curve for a sample of which the individuals have migrated to
more favourable surroundings at varying ages. Probably no individual
fish has a growth-curve of this type, but the average curve is compounded
of several different types representing the one-, two-, three-, and four-
year-old migrants respectively. The sudden jump during the sixth year
in the rain-river curve is the result of two fish only, and no importance
attaches to it.

It may seem rather arbitrary to include the Opihi as a rain river and
the Ashley as a snow river. Each of these rivers is more or less on the
border-line. Sea-going fish frequent each, and each contains a large number
of small fish which have not been to sea, though possibly they may go
later. It so happens that all my examples from the Opihi, which were
caught in November, 1917, near the junction with the Tengawai, belonged
to this latter class, whilst all the Ashley fish were largish fish which had
probably been to sea.

In view of the exceptionally poor growth of the Opihi and Tengawai
fish, it would be most interesting to get scales from some of the large sea-
run fish for which the Opihi is so famous, and to see whether these represent
a later stage in the development of fish which as three- or four-year-olds
had averaged only 10 in. to 12 in., or whether they belong to a different
race. The matter is of some importance to the South Canterbury Accli-
matization Society. If these poorly developed three- and four-year-olds are
practically the " parr " stage of the larger sea-going trout the present con-
dition of the Opihi is healthy ; if not, then in my opinion it is carrying a
stock far in excess of its food-supply.*

Plate IV, fig. 2, shows a scale from one of the Rakaia fish, and is an
example of a very clearly marked scale, which is none the less difficult to
read. The first winter band is clearly shown, and so is the second ; but
immediately outside the latter is another darkening ; there is then a space
indicating rapid summer growth, and the rest of the scale is normal. If
this peculiarity existed in one scale only it might be attributed to some
accident to or displacement of that particular scale. I have ten scales from
this particular fish, and every one of them shows the same peculiarity.
It has some meaning if one could only find it out. With some diffidence
I offer the following explanation : The fish lived in the stream where
hatched — probably the Rakaia — throughout the first year and the second
summer and autumn ; when the second winter band was nearly complete
it migrated to the sea, and immediately responded to the stimulus of sea-
water. The stimulus, however, was short-lived, and winter stagnation again
set in, causing the third check. So the second and third checks are really
one winter band divided by a short period of rapid growth in winter, due
to the tonic effect of sea- water. I have met this same peculiarity in one
or two other fish from the Rakaia.

Peculiarities such as this are not uncommon, and when they occur in
one scale they invariably occur in every scale from the same fish, showing

* Since writing the above I have received scales from two of the large sea-run fish
of the Opihi, 26 in. and 201- in. in length. Tlie former ajjijears to have migrated as a
yearling when about Gin. long, the latter as a four-year-old (jjossibly three-year-old)
when about 10^ in. long. The early growth of this latter corresponds closely with
that of the small Opihi fish previously mentioned. A scale from thi.s fish is shown in
Plate IV, fig. 1.

52

Truasactious.

that they are the result of some peculiarity in that fish's growth. Whilst
very puzzling, these peculiarities are encouraging, for they open up possi-
bilities for fresh discoveries in scale-reading.

The Back-country Lakes.

The material examined comprises ten fish from Marymere, fifteen from
Lake Heron, three from Lake Coleridge, and two from Lake Alexandrina.
Marymere. — The average growth in this lake is as follows : —

Winters . . . . 1

2

3

4

5

6 7 8,9

!

Inches .. .. 5-4 12-6

1

17-2

19-7

21-5

22-7

23-4

24-2

24-4

The full figures are set out in Table IV (A), and the growth-curve is
shown in fig. 5. The most striking feature of the curve is the large growth
made during the second year, which exceeds even that of the first year ;
and not only is this the case in the average curve, but it is true of every

O '

«

.15

1 1

; 1

J«

JJ

^0

Tf»'

^7

p$

^5

ft

SO

/9

la
a

t6

1 — ■

ri

^

pfl

,,

y

/^

/

/

/

J

/

fO

/

/a:

9

9
7

6

s

9
J

/

/

/

/

5

'

/

/

/

/

g

/

o

Fig. 5.

one of the ten fish examined, except one, in which the growth was equal
for the first and second years. Such a state of aft'airs would generally be
explained by saving the fish migrated at one year old to more favourable
conditions. This cannot be the explanation in Marymere, as there are no
streams running either into or out of the lake. It must be remembered,
however, that the insects in our back-country districts are mostly large in
size, and it seems probable that the true explanation is to be found in the
fact that the main bulk of the food-supply is of a nature more suitable to
fish after they have passed the yearling stage. Gilbert (2) has shown that
quinnat and sockeye salmon which have migrated to the sea as fry a few
months after hatching have very similar scales.

GoDBY. — Growth of Hroivn T ront in C((iil( rhuni.

53

No brown trout have been liberated in Marymere since 1908, and so it is
clear that they must breed in the lake itself, as three of the ten fish appear
to have been hatched in 1914. It is curious that the next-youngest fish
seems to have been hatched in 1911. In dealing with such small samjiles
it is dangerous to generalize, but it certainly looks as if 1914 was an excep-
tionally favourable breeding season. Plate V, fig. 1, shows a scale from
one of these fish hatched in 1914, and Plate V, fig. 2, a scale from one of
the older fish. The latter illustrates clearly the difficulty in determining"
the age of old fish, owing to the way in which the winter bands are crowded
together towards the edge of the scale. It is probable that the per-
centage of ova hatched in Marymere, except in very favourable seasons, is
abnormally low, and that the stock of fish is maintained mainly by the
greater average age attained. Whether this latter is due to natural
causes or to the limited amount of angling I am unable to say, but it is a
characteristic not only of Marymere but also of other back-country lakes.
The average age is 6-4, calcidated to last winter ; and as these fish would
probably all have survived until next spawning season their average age
would then have been 7-4 years, or about \h vears older than the Selwvn
fish.

Lake Heron. — The average growth is as follows : —

Winters

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Inches

4-4

9-0

14-4

18-2

20-4

21-5

22-6

23-0

23-7

23-7

The full figures are set out in Table IV (B), and the growth-curve is
shown in fig. 6 as a continuous line, the Marymere curve being reproduced

If

^^

-J3

^_

30

n

16

25

—

— -1

^— — "

—

li

^_ -

— " ^^J

' —

^

--' ^

■ —

2&

^

- y

n

'

X

16

/5

/5

/

X

-'

/ >

/^

/ /

,1

/

^^

/

X

,,

ffl

/

/a

9

e

f

/

' /

/ /

/ /

s

5

/

/

-'^

r

//

y

?

y

0

/^

0

Fig. 6.

as a broken line for comparison. Although the size of the older fish approxi-
mates fairly closely to that in Marymere, the average length of the younger

54

Transactions.

fish is distinctly lower, especially at two, three, and four years old. It is
also noticeable that the curve is nearly a straight line for the first four
years, and that even in the fifth year the falling-oft' is not very pronounced.
In dealing with the Sel'wyn fish I pointed out that a curve of this character
was to be associated with a sample of fish containing individuals which
probably migrated to more favourable conditions at varying ages. An
examination of the figures in Table IV (B) shows the characteristic increase
of growth to have taken place in every case, and examples can be found
of one-, two-, three-, and four-year-old migrants. Lake Heron differs from
Marymere in that there are several small tributary streams flowing in and
one fair-sized stream flowing out of it. In the spawning season these are
packed with spawning trout. No doubt also a large number of trout spawn
in the lake itself. I have selected five fish from the fifteen which appeared
to have scales similar in character to the Marymere fish, and calculated the
average rate of growth as follows : —

Winters . . . . 1

2

3

4

.5 6 ' 7

Inches

5-1

12-2

18-2 20-5 21-7

22-3

23-0

Fig. 7 shows the growth-curve for these, and the broken line shows the
growth-curve for the Marymere fish. There is a difference of 1 in. at three
years and 0-8 in. at four years old ; elsewhere they agree to within 0-5 in.

^0

i$

\

16

25

— -"~

^--j:

;=- — ■

___^— ^

=-^

30

^

— -^"T^^

20

- '

^-^_,^^

18

,•'

//

16

ts

/J

fi

u

)j

,^

'/

/

fO

/

/

/

/

s

7

_

S

/

/

^

/

i

^

/

0

/

0

Fig.

In dealing with such small samples the agreement is most remarkable, and
suggests the probability that these fish were bred in the lake itself or
migrated as fry.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate V.

CJ

. <l:

o

-H CO

M

m

^ 05

3 S
O p

g 2

^ P&

F^'ce p. 54.]

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate VI.

CM

pq

>i

z

.^

SI

L'5

rn

C1

3

br

O

n:i

o

S-i

SI

1 — 1

CJ

K'

o

— 1

^'

50

n

o

ce ^

o

f-t

^

>>H

^

• •^

x

1-^

i Ix
^~ = s

5il

5£'

t^ 2 ^
2 te:S

-=■ -^ ^

^ re t<

3 3 O

+j +i 13

o o
?2 25

GoDBY. — GroirtJi of B

rou'ii

Trout in Canftrhur>i.

55

The average age — 6-93 last winter or 7-93 at next spawning — is again
high — higher than Marymere.

Lake Alexandrina — This lake contains some very large fish, and the
average size is certainly greater than in either of the last two lakes. Unfor-
tunately, I have been able to obtain scales from only two fish ; the figures
for these are shown in Table IV (C).

Lake Coleridge. — This lake was first stocked with brown trout in 1868,
and has for many years been noted for the exceptionally large size of its
trout. I have been able to obtain scales from three fish only from this
lake, but two of them are so remarkable that I have included a photograph
of a scale from each fish. Plate VI, fig. 1, shows a scale from a fish of
10| lb. captured about the 5th November, 1917. The length of the fish was
not supplied to me, but would probably be about 27i in., and I have made
my calculations on this assumjition. The fish seems to have been three
years old in the winter of 1917, and shows a most remarkable growth since
the last winter. The figures for each year are as follows : —

Winters

Inches

15f

This scale apparently belongs to the Marymere type, and the fish was
probably bred in the lake. It is considerably larger than any three-year-
old I have ever heard of. The second fish was captured on the 10th March,
1918. A photograph of one of these scales is shown in Plate VI, fig. 2. The
fish weighed 17 lb. and measured 34| in. in length. The scales are, I think,
the most beautifully marked and at the same time the most interesting in
my collection. Surrounding the centre of growth are four winter bands
close together, denoting four years of poor growth. These are followed by
a year of growth which, so far as I know, is cjuite unique. There is another
year of good growth, and then two years of moderate growth. The last
winter band is right at the edge of the scale, and it is perhaps open to
question whether this represents the winter of 1917 or the beginning of the
1918 winter. The difficulty of reading the scale is increased by the fact
that every scale is more or less broken or worn at the edge. The fish was
an egg-bound female, and in this abnormal state it is unlikely that she
would grow much. On the whole, I think it more probable that the winter
band right at the edge of the scale represents the winter 1917, and that
there has been practically no growth since then (represented by one or two
rings only), and that the fish was going back in condition when caught, as
is evidenced by the frayed lateral edges of the scale. On this assumption
the figures are as follows : —

Winter-s . .

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Inches . .

2i

4

8

lOi

24

30

32i

34i

The individual growth-curves for these two fish are shown in fig. 8. It
is a fortunate coincidence that in three fish from this lake I should have

56

Transactions.

hit on two such striking and extreme examples of different types of growth.
The probable weight of the 17 lb. fish each year would be about —

1

Winters . . 1 2 3

4

5

6 7

1

8

1 '' \ \
Weight .. ! loz. 4oz. 4oz. 8oz. 5Jlb. 1 11 lb. ! 14 lb.

1 i 1

lejib.

' 2jy*56 7 a 9 /o /

^^

ly

'

.'^'"^

1

/

,^

.

i

^

/

1

/

1

£0

/

1

SO

/

1

'

/

j

,^

/

1

'f

/

j

/

1

•

IS

/

j

/

1

,

,^

/

j

„

/

1

,

/

^

10

/

^

/

^

/

y

,

/

/

^

/

y

s

/

y

/

^,,-^^

/ ^

-^

;•

,

/ -^

o

0

Fig. 8.

Conclusions.

1. The scales of a trout give fairly reliable evidence of age and length
attained by the fish each winter.

2. Some scales are difficult to read, and errors may occur mainly in
three ways : (a) The first one or two winter bands are often very indistinctly
marked ; (6) in very old fish the winter bands may be so crowded together
towards the edge of the scale as to be indistinguishable — possibly in some
cases the scale may cease growing altogether ; (c) some scales, whilst clearly
marked, are at present difficult to read : when this is the case all scales
from the same fish present the same peculiarity.

3. A true spawning-mark is not uncommon amongst the large males,
and is probably formed by absorption of the scale, especially the outer
surface, in formation of the tough skin assumed by the males at spawning-
time. In other fish the character of the winter band gives in many cases a
tolerably reliable indication of spawning.

4. Under normal conditions trout increase but slowly in length after the
third winter. Growth is most rapid in the first two years, and generally
the first year shows the best growth of all.

5. Very rarely does a trout growing in this manner attain a large size
(say, over 2 lb.). Large trout almost invariably show a break in the growth-
curve when a year of rapid growth succeeds slower growth. After the rapid

GoDBY. — Growth of Brouni Trout in Canterbury. 57

growth has set in the growth follows the normal curve again, getting less
every year. This break or jump is probably caused by migration to more
favourable surroundings.

6. Trout which have been stunted by unfavourable conditions for four
or even five years, and possibly longer, are still ca])able of rapid growth.

7. Any particular water seems to have' a fairly definite maximum size
of fish. In waters where this is large, such as Lake Ellesmere and the back-
country lakes, the maximum size will be reached no matter what the age of
migration, and the age of migration seems to have little or no effect u])on
the size ultimately attained.

8. Lake Ellesmere has a maximum size in the neighbourhood of 23 in.,
but some fish considerably exceed this. Whether this is due to an mherited
tendency to rapid growth or to some specially favourable circumstances
I cannot at present say. It is certainly a point worthy of investigation.

9. In Canterbury trout grow much more rapidly in the early stages than
in Norway, but the growth slows down earlier. The very large Mjosen
trout are mostly very old, and still growing vigorously. The average age of
migration is also much higher there than in Lake Ellesmere, for instance.

10. Yearling trout average about 5 in. in Canterbury, as calculated from
the scales. From Victoria Lake 112 yearling trout averaged 6 in., but the
conditions there are certainly more favourable than the average. In
Norway yearling trout average about 2 in. (Dahl).

11. Lake Coleridge seems to favour the most rapid growth of all. The
sea is slightly more favourable than Lakes Heron, Marymere, and Ellesmere,
which are about the same.

12. Except in very complicated waters, a fair idea of the average growth
can be obtained by examining small parcels of ten to twenty fish, provided
they aie of fair age and fairly representative.

I take this opjjortunity of expressing my thanks to Dr. Chilton for much
kindly instruction in microscopy, and to the North Canterbury Acclimatiza-
tion Society and many anglers for assistance in collecting scales. The
photographs are by Messrs. Leghorne and Colgan, of the Radia Studio, to
whom I am much indebted for their infinite pains and trouble to secure the
best possible results.

References to Literature.

(1.) Knut Dahl, The Age and Growth of Salmon and Trout in Norway, as shown by their

Scales (translated from the Norwegian by Ian Bailee), Salmon and Trout Asso-
ciation, London, 1910.
(2.) C. H. Gilbert, Age at Maturity of the Pacific Coast Salmon of the Genus

Oncorhynchus, Bulletin U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, vol. 32 (Document No. 767).

1912.
(3.) C. HoFFBAUER, Die Altersbestimmung des Karpfen an seiner Schuppe, Allgemeiite

Fischerei Zeitunq, Jahrg. 23, pp. 341-43, 1898 ; Jahrg. 25, pp. 135-39, 150-56,

297, Miinchen, 1900.
(4.) H. W. Johnston, The Scales of Tay Salmon as indicative of Age, Growth, and

Spawning-habit, Fishery Board for Scotland, Ann. Rep., vol. 23, pt. 2, 1904 :

vol. 25, pt. 2, 1906 ; vol. 26, pt. 2, 1907.
(5.) A. T. Masterman, Rejjort on Investigations upon the Salmon, with Special

Reference to Age-determination by Study of Scales, Board of Agriculture and

Fisheries, Fishery Investigations, Series 1, Salmon and Fresh-ivater Fisheries.

vol. 1, London, 1913 .
(6.) H. P. Taylor, The Structure and Growth of the Scales of the Squeteague and the

Pigfish as indicative of Life-history, Bulletin U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, vol. 34

(Document No. 823), 1914.

58

Transactions.

Table I (A).
Thirty -three Trout from Selivyn Stripping, June, 1916.

X ^„ "XTrt

Sex.

Length each Whiter.

IjOg No.

1

1

2

3

4 5

6

7

8

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In. ]

n.

All

M

3i

H

11

18

20

22

A 12

M

5

10

14

22

23*

, ,

A 13

M

6|

13i

m

20i

9->

224

A 15

M

H

5|

10

19

21i

23i

A 16

M

n

7

Hi

15f

20*

22*

A17

M

3

6i

m

14f

20*

21|

25

A 21

M

H

8

14i

16*

19

A 22

M

5

lOi

14|

18|

21i

224

A 23

M

'i

12

17

A 24

M

3i

H

12|

16*

201

22

A 25

M

3

6

12|

18^

21|

23

A 26

M

6i

9|

14i

17|

21

, .

A 27

M

5

8i

10|

15

19*

20i

21 :

224

A 30

M

6i

12

18

20

20f

22

A 31

•

M

6

ui

18i

20

, ,

A 32

M

6

lOf

18*

23

25

, ,

A 33

M

H

m

17

20

21f

234

A 34

M

4i

u

91

12

16

. .

A 35

M

4

151

18

19

20*

214

22

A 36

M

6

14

18J

194

21i

224

A 37

M

H

H

13*

17

19f

22

23

A 38

M

3*

«i

12

184

194

, ,

A 39

M

3|

H

18i

, ,

, ,

. ,

A 40

M

5f

10

18i

23

, ,

A 41

M

5i

12|

m

20i

234

25

A 42

M

H

7

12J

15i

171

21

A 43

M

H

7i

10*

15i

174

A44

M

6i

12

18*

21i

23

, ,

A 45

M

4i

lOi

13

m

21i

A 46

M

4|

m

m

. ,

A 47

M

6

m

18*

m

. ,

A 48

M

3i

H

1-4

m

19

194

20

A 49

M

4|

7

11*

m

Aver

ages

•

4-7

9-7

14-7

lS-3

20-7

22-2

22-2 2

2-5

s

Average age

Average length . .

Average length of 100 males marked in 1915

5-4
21-3

20-8

GoDBY. — Gruirtli of Brown Trout in Canterbvry.

59

Table I (B).
140 Trout from Selwijn Stripping, 17th June, 1917.

Log No.

a „

Length each Winter.

Sex.

1

• >

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

A 50 .

F

n

13

15

17i

204

21

214

A 51 .

F

4

n

124

184

20

, .

1

. .

A 52 .

F

5i

8i

134

164

18|-

21|

. .

*

A 53 .

F

4i

7|

17

204

A 54 .

F

4*

n

13i

184

21

, .

A 55

F

H

~'i

114

15.^.

171

19

204

A 5(5 .

F

6i

12

184

204

21|

23

A 57

F

4i

n

12

174

20 , 214

23

A 58 .

F

4

74

n

13

14J

17

19

264

214

.

A 59 .

F

H

7

11

13f

16f

184

194

AGO .

F

6f

124

184

A 61 .

F

6f

lOi

14

184

21

A 62 .

F

H

8i-

12i

14J

174

194

20i

A 63 .

F

4i-

H

134

16

17-1

19

A 64 .

F

5^

10

134

16

18

194

A 65 .

F

U

11

144

16|

18

19

19f

264

A 66 .

F

5f

12

18

. ,

, ^

A 67

F

5f

10

144

18

194

204

21

A 68 .

F

5|

104

14i

164

184

204

, ,

A 69 .

F

7

10*

131

17

181

204

, ,

A 70 .

F

7

14t

174-

184

204

•

A 71 .

F

4i

9

124

16"

184

204

A 72 .

F

3J

n

Vlh

19

* •

B 1 .

M

5

8i

17

224

27

B 2 .

F

H

124

184

. .

. ,

B 3 .

F

U

12

144

16

174

18

181

194

264

B 4 .

F

5

8

104

144

164

194

204

21

B 6 .

F

4

74

104

16i

20

23

, ,

B 7 .

F

4i

94

164

18

19

20

261

214

22

B 8 .

F

4

9

144

17

194

204

224

B 9 .

F

7

13

16

184

BIO .

F

6i

9i

13i

174

. ,

, ,

, ,

BU .

F

of

134

19

B12 .

F

44

lOi

14i

174

194

B13 .

F

44

8

14

16

184

■ih

B14 .

F

5

14

194

B 15 .

F

3

7

12i

164

184

B 16 .

F

6

10

174

19

21

• .

B 17 .

F

n

I3i

18

.

B 18 .

F

4f

8|

15

174

i84

21

B19 .

F

4

84

12

174

B20 .

F

6i

114

151

18f

20

2i4

, ,

B21 .

F

5

9

13

164

184

20

B23 .

F

7

I3i

161

18i

20

214

22

. 224

B24 .

F

5

lOi

18

194

21

B 25 .

F

6i

lOf

15

18

20

2i4

*

B26 .

F

Vi-

111

15

17f

191

21

, ,

B27 .

F

et

124

154

18

194

21

.

B28 .

F

6

91

12

14t

184

20

224

B29 .

F

4

n

134

19

B 30 .

F

oh

9

114

14

164

264

B31 .

F

41

94

124

144

174

19

60

Transactions.

Table I (B)- — continued
140 Trout from Selwyn Stripping, 17th June, 1917 — continued.

Log No.

Sex.

Length each Winter.

9 10 11

B32
B33
B34
B35
B36
B37
B38
B40
B41
B42
B43
B44
B45
B46
B47
B48
B49
B50
B51
Bo2
B53
B54
B55
B56
B57
Bo8
B59
B60
B61
B62
B63
B64
B65
B66
B67
B68
B69
B70
B71
B72
B73
B74
B75
B76
B77
B78
B79
B80
B81
B82
B84
B85
B86

In.

In.

In.

In.

F

7

Hi

14i

17*

F

5i

10|-

16

19|

F

4

m

18i

. .

F

6f

m

16i

17f

F

5i

-i

13i

19

F

n

12i

16i

18*

F

6|

13i

18i

F

H

-i

13i

17*

F

7

11-1

14f

18

F

8i

11

14*

17

F

5i

n

8|

14f

F

H

11

15i

17*

F

U

Hi

14|

17

F

3i

7

14*

17

F

3f

6f

9i

12*

F

5^

Hi

17

20

F

3f

H

Hi

15i

F

6i

12

16f

181

F

4

7i

13

18i

F

4i

11

17

18f

F

^

lOf

15*

17f

F

3i

6

9i

121

F

5*

8i

11*

151

F

5

8i

13i

18*

F

H

71

Hi

15

F

5i

12

16*

19*

F

H

8i

131

16

F

5

12i

17

19

F

6i

8i

12i

17

F

31

6i

9

16i

F

41

n

10|

141

F

5i

H

14*

18i

F

4i

n

12i

18

F

5*

81

11*

15*

F

4i

8|

13|

16

F

51

111

131-

16*

F

3i

9

13

17

F

4|

8f

11*

18

F

4i

9

13*

15*

F

4f

81-

13i

17i

F

4|

8i

14

19

F

3i

5i

9

12|

F

6i

loi

18

19*

F

4i

n

12

18*

F

5

8i

11

13

F

4i

8i

131

18*

F

3i

5h

9i

13i

F

5i

m

14f

19i

F

5i

8i

12i

17

F

3i

61-

n

13*

F

Si-

8i

13i

16*

F

Si

11

m

19

F

5i

9i

iif

15|

In.
20

16*
20
18i
18*

19

19*

21

20*
18*
16|
19*

18
20*

18

13J

19i
20*
20*

19i

17*
18*
20*

17i

loi
21

16

21

20*

16i

18i

In.

20

21^

21

18

20*
21

19

21

20*
20

20i

19
21i

15i 17

18

21*
18*

19i

In.

21

21

20

i9;

20

22*
20*
20*

23
19

19

20

21
2i

In

22

21i

23

In

23

20

In

21

In.

GoDBY. — Growth of Broiim Trout in Canterhiirn.

61

Table I (B) — continued.
140 Trout from Selwyn Stripping, 17th June, 1917 — continued.

Log No.

Sex.

Length each Winter.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7 8

1 9

1

10 11

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In. In

In.

In.

In

.

B 87 ..

F

3i

54

104

14i

16^

18i

194

,

B 88 ..

F

3|

9f

15i

17|

19i

21i

22i 234

B 89(a)

F

6i

9

llf

144

17

184

20

,

B 89(6)

F

5i

8i

144

19i

21f

221

234 ■

,

B 90 .

F

4

6f

13i

17

17J

194

20 204

B 91 .

F

4|

7

10

14i

16

18

204 ■

,

B 92 .

F

6

13

16

181

214

B 93 .

F

4

74

114

13|

15*

17i

18| i 194

20

B 94 .

F

54

n

14|

17

19i

20

21i , 22

B 95 .

F

4

71-

12|

174

194

21

224 I •

B 96 .

F

3i

6

13f

20

. ,

.

B 97 .

F

^

64

13

154

17i

18i

20 2

ii

B 98 .

F

5

8f

Hi

134

154

184

20* 224

B 99 .

F

4

10

12i

14|

17i

184

194 •

BlOO .

F

5i

84

lOf

13

16

184

191 2

1

1

BlOl .

F

4

8

114

14

15|

171

18 1

9

2i

B102 .

F

8

12i

15|

184

• .

B103 .

F

4

7i

Hi

134

15

B104 .

F

4i

144

19

214

. ,

4 • •

B105 .

F

5

84

14|

17i

19i

214

< .

B106 .

F

4

6f

11

14

16|

18

194 •

B107 .

F

4i

U

14|

184

20i

224

B108 .

F

4

7|

Hi

13|

164

184

204 •

B109 .

F

4*

74

11

15

181

194

21

BllO .

4*

8|

14

194

, ^

Bill .

F

5

8f

12-1:

18

. .

B112 .

F

4

7i

94

12

1.5f

18

. •

B113 .

F

5i

11

18

, ,

B114 .

F

5i

84

13i

194

. . .

B115 .

F

5*

10|

18

B116 .

F

H

8

11

14

174

20

204 -'

2

B117 .

F

6f

12|

16

18

, ,

B118 .

F

5i

114

15i

17f

20i

22

. .

B119 .

F

24

5

6

84

Hi

14

15| 1

8-1

194

20|

22

B120 .

F

4

8

15

17

184

201

224 2

3i

244

Ave

ra

ges

.5-1

9-3

13-8

16-9

18-6

19-8

20-6 21

2

21-5

2M

22-0

1st twenty
2iid twenty
3rd twenty
4th twenty
5th twenty
f)th twenty
7 th twenty

Averages

for each Group of Twenty.

5-3

9-4

14-0

17-0

18-8

20-0 20-6

20-5 21-5

5-2

10-3

15-3

18-2

19-6

20-3

20-5

20-7

21-2

5-8

10-6

14-8

17-6

19-3

20-7

21-7

22-5

, ,

, ,

5-2

9-5

13-7

16-9

18-8

20-0

20-7

22-1

23-0

4-7

8-4

12-5

16-7

18-7

19-2

20-6

20-6

21-2

21-5

4-5

8-4

12-6

16-1

18-0

19-4

20-6

21-5

20-0

4-7

9-0

13-5

16-2

17-1

19-2

19-7

20-7

21-7

20-7

22-0

Average age
Average length.

5-9
20-4

62

Transactions.

Table I (C).
Twenty -nine Trout (Males) from Selwyn Stripping, 16th June, 1918.

Average age

Log. No.

Length each Winter.

1

2

3

4 5

6

7

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

B 235 .

3*

6

131

20

. ,

B237 .

4

14*

19i

22*

241

B239 .

3J

6

13*

18

20*

22

22*

B240 .

5

13

17

19i

21f

23

B241 .

3i

7

15

. ,

, ,

B 242 .

4i

8i

13

201

21*

. ,

B243 .

8f

14f

17f

20

22f

24

B244 .

H

7

14

20*

22

23

B247 .

di

9|

13*

21

23*

. ,

B248 .

3f

8i

141

201

21*

24

B 250 .

H

lU

20*

B2ol .

6

14

19*

2li

22*

B252 .

6i

15

22

26

B2o4 .

6|

13*

18*

21*

23*

B 255 .

7f

14|

20^:

22 ■

, .

B256 .

7i

15*

21*

, ,

B 257 .

H

6l

8

H

17*

24'

B259 .

7

131-

21

24

B260 .

4

8

12*

21

23

B 2r3l .

ii

&

17

. ,

, ,

B 262 .

H

m

20

23f

24*

B269 .

5i

Hi

15

21

23

25

26

B270 .

6^

13i

21i

2.J

B271 .

6f

12f

m

23i

26*

B276 .

4i

9i

17

■2H

231

24"

C 3 .

6

15*

C 5 .

5i

8i

16*

19*

. ,

C 8 .

4i

7i

13*

18i

20f

22

(' 13 .

H

15i

20*

23*

25

A^

^erages .

•

5-5

10-9

16-8

20-9

22-5

23-5

24-2

Average length

Average lengtli of sixty-six males

marked in 1918

4-8
22-5
22-6

GoDBY. — (yroirth of Broirti Trout in Cfintfrhxrii.

63

Table I (D).
Thirty-six Trout (Females) from Selwijn Stripping, 16th June, 1918.

Length each \\

Inter.

Log Xo.

1

2

:i

4

5

6

7

8

9

In.

In.

In.

In.

in.

In.

In.

In.

In.

B236

4

6f

14|

17i

19J

21

21*

B238

8

13i

161

18*

20

2 If

23

24

25

B246

4|

n

13i

181

21

22*

, ,

B249

7

12-i

\Sh

19*

20f

21|

22i

24|

251

B253

-ti

7i

m

14*

16f

19

211

22*

B263

7i

13"

m

17*

20

21

B264

H

14

16f

191

211-

22*

, ,

B26o

•H

14

i5i

171

19

20*

21*

B266

7f

13i

18

B267

••i

lOi

1-ti

21

24

, ,

B268

4

Ih

Hi

16i

171

19

20

B272

4

8i

loi

20*

B273

5*

10

13*

IS*

201

23

24

251

26

B274

•u

7|

14i

17i

19i

21*

22f

B275

4

13i

19*

20*

22

23

B277

6i

I2i

16*

18f

20*

, ,

B278

3|

7

10

12f

15f

18*

19i

21|

22*

B279

->f

111

16

171

19

20i

21*

B280

•5f

13

19

B281

3i

6

lU

i7*

26i

21

22i

23

B282

8i

14i

19i

21

B283

6i

lU

16

18i

19*

20i-

2i

B284

41

7i

13*

19i

21

, ^

B285

U

6i

loi

171

m

21

22

B286

81

(ii

n

l-tf

m

20i

21*

B287

7

12*

15

17*

20*

22

B288

5i

9i

13*

18f

20

. ,

, ,

, ,

C 1

4

5!

8*

15

17

18*

21

22*

C 2

7

Hi

14i

17

i8i

20*

■in

C 4

5i

12!

16

18i

20

21

C 6

7i

14i

21

23

C 7

-t*

71

13i

161

19

20*

C 9

4

13i

19*

_

C 10

6i

13-1-

\n

ig

C 11

5

9

13*

17J

20*

C 12

3|

51

lOi

14f

m

19|

21

22

Aver

ages

0-4

10-3

14-9

17-9

19-6

20-8

21-6

23-2

24-7

Average age

Average length . .

Average length of 156 females marked in 1918

6-2
21-7
21-5

64

Transactions.

Table I (E).
Thirteen Trout caugM with Rod and Line, Lake Ellesmere, 1917-18.

Date.

Log Xo.

Weight.

Length.

Sex.

Length each Winter.

1

2

, 1 .

0

6

7

--

lb.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In

20/10/17 .

B132

11

28

M

5f

m

13i

184

'i

244

26|

21/10/17 .

B133

6f

25

Fl

4*

84

13f

164

19

214

24|

27/10/17 .

B136

5i

23

F

4*

H

14i

17

19

214

17/11/17 .

B147

8J

28

M

3f

10

16i

224

27i

17/11/17 .

B150

H

22

M

5*

H

lU

14|-

16f

211

17/11/17 .

Biol

H

22

M

H

m

13

15i

20

17/11/17 .

B152

24

m

F

H

84

llf

15

. .

. ,

9/12/17 .

B159

3i

21

F

5

74

134

151

m

20

8/1/18 .

B185

U

25

. .

4i

94

16

191

214

241

6/1/18 .

B198

n

24

F

6*

12|

22

. .

. .

. ,

9/3/18 .

B213

7

24

F

H

9

14f

194

22i

9/3/18 .

B214

7

25i

F

6f

m

18f

22-1-

9/3/18 .

B216

4

19|

M

5

n

Hi

16|

Averages

5-1

9-7

14-6

17-9

20-8

22-2

25-7

Table I (F).
Five Large Trout from Lake Ellesmere.

Log KTo.

Length each Winter.

Date.

M

M>

W

a

0)

X

1

2

3

4

5

6 , 7

8

9

is-

^^

TH

lb.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

1
In. In.

In. In.

28/12/16..

A 1

134

284

F

6

9i

214

254

274

. .

• .

. .

-/6/15..

A 18

iH

29

F

5*

8*

13

17

214

234

251

264

27^

20/10/17..

B132

11

28

M

51

10*

13i

184

22f

244

26i

17/11/17..

B147

8|

28

M

3|

10

16i

224

271

10/5/18..

B232

134

33

M

n

13

17

211

274

31

Averages . .

5-8

10-2

16-2

20-9

25-3

26-5

26-0

26-5

27-5

GoDBT. — (Jrowth of Brown Trout in Canterbury.

65

Date.

1/10/17

1/10/17
4/10/17

i/io/n

26/10/17
26/11/17
23/12/17

9/10/17

9/10/17
9/10/17

8/12/17

8/12/17

8/12/17

8/12/17

30/12/17

30/12/17

8/4/18

24/2/18
24/2/18
24/2/18

7/10/17

7/10/17

13/10/17

14/10/17

28/10/17
28/10/17
28/10/17
28/10/17

9/11/17 ..

10/11/17 ..

9/11/17 ..

10/11/17 ..

9/11/17 ..

9/11/17 ..

9/11/17 ..

Averages

Table II.
Rain Rivers.

Log Xo.

B 127
B128
B129
B161
B103
B 165
B169
B173
B 174
B231

B208
B209
B210

B125
B 126
B130
B131
B137
B 138
B 139
B 140

B162
B 164
B 166
B 167
B170
B172
B 168

Weight. I Length. Sex.

Length each Winter.

A

. Cam.

lb.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

B121

2i

18

4^

8f

m

14f

16i

18

B122

i

12

5

10|

. .

. .

B123

15f

6*

m

iH

. .

B124

. ,

15i

H

m

14

■ .

B 134-5

1

14|

4

8

12

i4i

. .

B153

1*

15-2

4

n

10|-

13*

14i

B 160

If

16i

F

5i

n

13^

15

B. North Branch,

Waimakariri

8*

, ,

6i

. ,

, .

. .

f

14

. ,

4^

8

Hi

13*

i

Hi

. .

U-

9i

Hi

H

14i

F

4

H

m

H

14f

M

H

Hi

13i

f

12

, .

4i

10

u

15*

M

4|-

n

13i

li

15

4

n

13i

h

Hi

5i

m

H

18i

M

5*

H

12f

C. Slyx.

n

15

3|

9

1

13

.. 3*

6

i-

lOJ

.. H

H

131
9J

E.

Opihi

10*

10

13*

10

11

13^

11

uiirJ Tengawai

•J 4
4

3i
4f
5i
4i

u

7
6

8i
9i

7i

4-6 9-0

9*

11*

12-0

11

13

13-7

D. Selwyn

No. 2

2

18

M

6i

10*

13f

16

16i 1

n

i

IH

. ,

5i

10

12|

12f

, .

^

7i

10^

m

. .

li

m

F

5

9*

13i

141

15*

1

14

. ,

3i

6i

12^

13|

li

15i
9i

M

4
3f

f

13

14

15

f

13i

5*

12

121

14-

17-7

A

verages for each River.

A. Cam

5-0 10-0

130

14-4

B. North Branch, Waimakariri

4-8 9-0

12-5

13-5

C. Styx

3-6 7-2

11-5

12-9

D. Selwyn No. 2

4-7 9-0

12-7

141

E. Opihi and Tengawai . .

4-2 7-5

10-0

12-2

15-5 I 18-0

.. I ..
12-2

15-7 17-5
12-7

3 — Trans.

66

Transactions.

Uatc.

Table III.
Svoiv Rivers.

Log No.

.SP
'S

6C

Length each Winter.

23/1/18.

23/1/18.
7/3/18.
7/3/18.

A. A Men.

lb.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

B19o

H

24*

U

llf

16i

20i

22^

.. 1

B197

3|

201

F

H

11

161

, .

, ,

B212

3

18*

M

6

10

14

16 J

B215

4i

204

. .

5

8

14f

171

20

In.

B. Waimakariri.

3/12/17.

3/12/17.

30/11/17.

23/1/18.

28/1/18.

2/2/18.

B154

H

17

M

4

B155

12

3*

B156

If

16

F

3f

B194

4^

2U

M

H

B196

2*

18

M

5h

B202

9i

"4

171

F

5*

B217

34

20

4f

Hi

10

10

12

134

14f

. . 1 . .

8i

104

, ,

. .

. • 1 . •

lOf

14

144

161

18|

20|

16

131

17

. .

14i

18

. .

1

C RaJcaia.

10/11/17.

12/1/18.
11/1/18.

20/1/18.

3/2/i8.

10/2/i8.

Averages .

B 144
B190
B192
B193
B 199
B200
B203
B204

. ,

234

M

64

25

F

5

244

M

1

14

F

44

21

F

7

28

F

44

21

F

3

19

M

54

4i

5i

5

74

54

4

4-7

134

9|
10|
llf

114

10

8|

84
18

14|

18

15

m

9-7 14-3

114

22f

23i

164 i 18|

24

18

25f

17-1

19-7

154

21-1

195

21-5

■?3

"4

22

A.
B.
C.

Ashley

Waimakariri

Rakaia

Averages for each River.

5-3

10-2

15-4

18-1

21-4

, ,

4-6

8-7

12-8

14-9

16-7

20-7

, ,

, ,

5-1

10-2

15-3

18-8

20-2

21-1

19-5

21-5

22-7

GoDBY. — (rrowfh of Broiru Trout in Canterbury.

Table IV.

Back-country Lakes.

67

Date.

Log No.

J3

-6

a

Length each Winter.

10

A. Marymere.

23/12/17
24/12/17
24/12/17
23/12/17

27/12/17
27/12/17
26/12/17
26/12/17
24/12/17
25/12/17

lb.

In.

In.

In.

In.

B175

4*

23

M

3*

10

15^

B176

6

24

F

6

12

15f

B 178

H

2U

F

6

15i

19

B179

U-

26

M

6

12^

16

B180

6

26

M

of

13i

18i

B 181

7

27

F

4f

12

16f

B 182

5

22

M

4*

13

191

B183

4*

20^

F

4*

12

18

B188

5*

24

F

6

12*

15*

B189

7

26

F

6|

131

17f

In.

17^

17f

20

21|

20|

20

20J

In.

19*

20i

221
23|
221

2i

21^

In.
20f

''*
23*
241
24

22

22f

In.

21|

221

24*

25i

231
23*

In.

221

23

25*

26i

24i

In.

251

In

2/11/17
2/11/17
1/11/17
8/11/17
24/11/17
31/3/18
31/3/18
31/3/18
31/3/18
31/3/18
31/3/18
31/3/18
31/3/18
31/3/18
31/3/18

B.

Lake Heron.

B142

6

24*

..

2*

7

10*

B143

5

21*

3f

6f

9|

B 145

8

26

ivi

4f

9

18

B 146

6

24

4

u

llf

B158

8

26*

M

4*

7*

10*

B221

5

•2l\

M

4*

8*

16

B222

5

22|

M

5*

10*

17*

B223

5*

22|

M

H

12f

19*

B224

6

23*

F

5

11

19

B225

61

24

M

5

m

16

B226

4

993

F

3*

6f

8f

B227

6

22^

F

5^

H

14

B228

5

21*

F

4

6*

11*

B229

4*

19f

F

4

6^

13*

B230

7

24|

M

5

14*

191

17

21

23i

241

. ,

, ,

11*

17

19

20*

2U

21*

22|

23*

24*

251

25f

17f

20*

21

22

22f

231

23

17*

20i

23*

24f

26

201

, ,

. ,

, ,

20

21^

221

, ,

, ,

20f

21|

. ,

, ,

, ,

20*

21|

22^

, ,

19^

20*

22

23

15

18

19*

20|

2i|

m

18

21

22^

. ,

, ,

m

181

19f

20f

m

m

m

19

221

231

. .

10/2/18
10/2/18

B205
B206

f;3
10

ooi

281

C. Lake Alexandrina.

M ] 6 I 11* 16*
F 51^1 11 17 ;

41

221

26

27^

r-

5/11/17

10/3/18

3/6/18

D. Lake

Coleridge.

B141*

10*

27*

F 7

15| 234

B218

17

34*

F 2*

4 I 8

B234

20

33*

F 3*

7 i 12^:1

19*

24

26*

30

31*

34i

r^p-p '

Averages

A. Lake Marymere

5-4

12-6

17-2

19-7 21-5 22-7

23-4

24-2

24-4

B. Lake Heron . .

4-4

9-0

14-4

18-2 20-4 21-5

22-6

230

23-7

23-7

., "natives"

51

12-21 18-2

20-5 21-7 22-3

23-0

j

, ,

,, " migrants "

4-1

7-4

12-4

17-0 19-7 21-2

22-5

23-0 23-7

1

23-7

* The length of B 141 (Lake Coleridge) was estimated from the vveiglit.

Marymere — Average age, calculated as at last winter : 6-40 ycar.s.
Lake Heron — Average age, calculated as at last winter : 6-93 years.

3*

68

Tranmctions.

Art. VII. — Description of a New Species of the Family Cerithiidae.

By Henry Suter.
Communicated by R. Speight.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, ISth September, 1918 ; received by
Editor, 25th September, 19 IS ; issued separately, 14th May, 1919.]

Fastigiella australis n. sp.

Shell elongate-conical, gradate, many-whorled, with slightly nodulous
cinguli ; aperture oval-quadrangular ; columella with a distinct fold pro-
duced by the entering of the carina of the fasciole. Sculpture : The post-
embryomic whorls have a prominent convex and faintly nodulous spiral band

below the suture ; a similar but narrower
band above the lower suture, and below it a fine
thread margining the suture. The paratype,
which is smaller, shows only the upper band and
a distinct thread above the suture below, (^n
the lower whorls the thread margining the suture
is lost ; strong convex and distant growth-
lines turn up which are produced into nodules
on the upper and lower cinguli, but the speci-
mens before me, no doubt considerably worn,
show only traces of these characters. The
body-whorl is distinctly angled and bears two
cinguli upon the angle. The base of the
paratype shows traces of spiral striation.
Spire high, distinctly gradate, angle about
20°. Protoconch lost. Whorls 8 on the im-
perfect holotype, flat or somewhat concave
between the cinguli, the body-whorl angled.
Suture deep, canaliculate in the paratype.
Aperture ovate, but slightly quadrangular, not
channelled above ; most likely with a very
short and notched canal, but the whole of the
mouth is too much damaged in both specimens
to be quite certain. Outer lip straight, curved
and indistinctly angled towards the base. Columella a little excavated
above, bearing on its lower part a fold which evidently extends as a carina
upon the fasciole, but the latter is almost completely broken off. Inner
lip spreading somewhat over the base, more apparent on the paratype.
Height, 22 mm. ; diameter, 8 mm. (imperfect holotype).
Holotype and one paratype in the Canterbury Museum, Christchurch.
Zoc— Holotype from the upper horizon, Whitewater Creek, and the
paratype from the upper horizon, Struthiolaria bed, Porter River, Trelissick
Basin ; both collected by Mr. R. Speight, Curator of the Canterbury
Museum.

Remarks. — The genotype is Fastigiella carinata Reeve, a living species
from the Antilles, and our species differs from it chiefly in the aperture not
being channelled above. The umbilicus of the type I take to be simply

Fastigiella australis Suter.

SuTER. — A New Species of the Family Cerithiidae. 69

a deep impression inside the fasciole ; Cossmann does not mention an
umbilicus in the diagnosis of the genus. Besides the Recent genotype,
about half a dozen Tertiary species are known, the genus being evidently
of rare occurrence. F. cmstralis is, as far as I know, the first species
recorded from the Southern Hemisphere.

The Cerithiidae are but scantily represented in the New Zealand
Tertiary. At the present time the following six species are on record :
Cerithium hectori Harris, Besanconia huttoni (Cossm.), Fastigiella australis
Sut., Cerithidea hicarinata (Gray), G. tricarinata Hutt., and Balillaria
pomahakensis Harris.

Art. VIII. — The Structure of Amphibola crenata Martyn.'^

By Winifred Cheyne Farnie, M.A., Assistant in the Biology Depart-
ment, University of Otago.

Communicated by Professor Benham.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th October, 1917 ; received by Editor, 17th
December, 1918 ; issued separateh/, 14th Ma;/, 1919.]

Introduction.

The shell of Amphibola was first brought to the notice of European
naturalists by being collected during Cook's voyage to New Zealand in
1769, but the earliest account of the anatomy of Amphibola we owe to
Quoy and Gaimard in 1832. The only other accounts we have are those
of Captain Hutton in 1879 and 1882, and of Bouvier in 1892. f

Quoy and Gaimard (1832) described specimens collected in New Zea-
land during the expedition of the " Astrolabe." They ascertained that it
was a true pulmonate, and that it was hermaphrodite. They give excellent
figures of the shell and operculum, but only one of the internal anatomy,
and that is lacking considerably in detail ; while their account of the
anatomy is inaccurate in several points, and not sufficiently detailed.

Captain Hutton (1879) noted the two small triangular tentacles, and
described the kidney and alimentary canal in greater detail than Quoy and
Gaimard, though his description of the intestine is not quite correct. He
also figured and described the nervous system and reproductive organs.
In 1882 he published some further notes, wherein he corrects his former
account of the radula and traces what he took for the '' oviduct " from
the hermaphrodite duct. Further mention of Hutton's work will be made
throughout my account.

For a systematic diagnosis of the species reference should be made to
Suter's Manual of New Zealand Mollusca (1913) and Atlas of Plates (1915).

* This paper fonned the basis of a thesis for Honours in Zoology at the University
of New Zealand, 1916.

f I have been unable to consult tliis memoir.

70

Transactions.

Although in the original thesis submitted to the University of New
Zealand the histological structure of the various organs was discussed and
illustrated, I have thought it advisable to omit these matters in the present
paper.

I wish here to express my indebtedness to Professor Benham for his
valuable suggestions and great help in preparing this paper for publication.

Habits.

Am-phihola crenata is a basommatophorous pulnionate gasteropod found
living on mud-flats in sheltered bays, both in brackish and in salt water.
It belongs to a series of pulmonates sometimes termed " gehydrophilous "
(Cook, 1895, p. 18), in which, while the gill has been replaced by a '' lung,"
the animal has not become truly an inhabitant of fresh water. Amphibola
and some other genera, such as Gadinia and Siphonaria, are '' intermediate
between essentially fresh-water and essentially marine species."

The larger specimens of Amphibola are found cjuite close to the sea,
the smaller ones farther up the mud-flat. They occur in enormous num-
bers on all the flats around the Otago Harbour, and, indeed, all along the
coast of New Zealand. They are, of course, covered during high tide, but
are exposed to view at low tide, so that the greater part of their life is
passed out of water. Nevertheless, sufficient water is retained in the
mantle-chamber to keep the tissues moist.

These animals are exceedingly sluggish. When they are in their natural
surroundings one has to watch them very closely to see whether they are
moving or not ; but if they are placed in a little sea- water in a dish their
method of locomotion is readily studied. When examined on the shore the

only evidences of movement are the slow
twirling of the shell as it is being drawn
up to cover the slightly extended head
and foot, the latter of which is concealed
in the mud, and the furrow traced out
on its path. The most striking feature
of this movement is the very small part
of the foot that is exposed at any one
time. Its method of locomotion is as
follows : A small portion of the anterior
part of the foot is protruded, and this
acts as a temporary anchor. The shell
is then drawn up to cover the exposed
part, and as it is twisted from left to
right during the process it leaves a small
part of the foot exposed on the left side
and behind. The animal then glides
slowlv forward for a space without

Fig. 1. — AmjjhiOola crenata from
below (natural size), as seen
creeping up the side of a glass
vessel of fresh water and thus
exposing the whole of the foot.
The two lappets of the heatl pro-
ject only slightly in front of it.
/, foot ; h, head ; m, mouth ;
s, shell.

a space

twisting the shell at all. The above process is repeated, the movement
of the shell sometimes being from right to left . The shell is carried at an
angle to the surface on which the animal is walking, the right side of the
shell being raised a little from the mud, while the left side almost touches it.
The animal is very sensitive, retracting into the shell at the slightest touch
or at any disturbance of the water.

Although air-breathing, Amphibola is able to live a considerable time
immersed in water, either fresh or salt. If kej)t in a glass of fresh water
the cover of wliich is sealed up it will live for a week ; if completely

Fah]S'ik. — The Structure of Amphibola crenata Martyn.

71

immersed in fresh water but not so sealed up it will live for a fortnight ;
if completely immersed in sea-water it will live a month ; but if left with-
out any water at all it does not live more than a day. Even when the tide
is low there is always a certain amount of water left in the mud, so that
these animals are not, in their native habitat, left absolutely dry.

External Features.

As Suter gives a good technical descrij)tion and figure of the shell it is
unnecessary to deal with it here.

The animal is of small size and of a beautiful rich black colour.

The head is but slightly marked off from the foot, and is relatively of
great breadth (fig. 2). Its anterior region is rather deeply excavated in the
middle line so as to form a pair of lappets, one on each side of the mouth.
Some distance from these are situated the pair of small, flat, triangular
tentacles, which in the majority
are so deeply pigmented that
the minute eye is not readily
seen, but in paler specimens the
eye is recognized as an extremely
small black dot of darker pig-
ment close to the tip of the
tentacle. Quoy and Gaimard,
though mentioning the eyes,
failed to note the tentacles.
Hutton (1879), however, de-
scribes the latter, but states that
the eye is at the base. This
error is repeated, naturally, in
Suter's Manual, but any one
who examines the creature with
sufficient care will be able to
confirm my statement."^

The foot is short, and almost
circular in outline, as seen from
below (fig. 1). In preserved spe-

cimens it is very much shrunken,
but if examined when the animal
is walking it will be seen that the
foot is capable of being expanded
until a narrow margin is visible
beneath the shell all the way
round except on the right side.
The foot is separated from the
head by a slight furrow ; there
is no distinction into pro-,
meso-, and meta- podium, nor
have I found any trace of a
creeping-sole is cream-coloured

Fig. 2. — Dorsal view, of the animal removed
from the shell { X 2). The foot is bent
upon itself so that the ventral surface of
its posterior region is seen in front of the
head. Some of the interior organs are seen
by transparency, e, eye ; cj, groove into
which anus opens ; gp, genital pore ; gz,
gizzai'd ; int. intestine ; ipl. inferior jiallial
lobe ; k, kichiej^ ; m, mouth ; mc, collar ;
pa, pulmonary aperture ; rl, right lappet
of head ; t, tentacle ; vf, ventral surface
of foot.

pedal gland. The anterior part of the
the posterior part greyish-blue.

* It is not surprising that the tentacles were overlooked by the earlier zoologists,
if they had only preserved specimens at their disposal, for when the head is contracted
they are difficult to distinguish from wrinklings of the body-wall. As to the eye, in
ordinary specimens they, too, are indistinguishable in such material : it is only in fresh
specimens and in those in whicli the pigmentation at the tip of the tentacles is less than
usual that they can be seen. [W. B. B.]

72 Traiisactions.

Attached to the dorsal surface of the hind end of the foot is the oper-
culum, closely underlying the shell so as to be visible only from the side.
When the animal is completely retracted it fits close against the entrance
to the spiral portion of the shell, and is firmly held there by muscles.

This characteristic prosobranchiate structure is found in this genus only
amongst the Pulmonata.

The thickened edge of the mantle, which, of course, is fused with the
neck, and which is usually called the " collar" (fig. 2, mc), is light in colour,
and is very muscular. It does not project beyond the shell during loco-
motion, but if the animal is allowed to remain in fresh water the head
becomes expanded and the mantle-edge appears under the outer lip of the
shell. The upper lip of the pulmonary aperture is then seen fitting into the
sinus of the shell.

The margin of the pulmonary aperture is not a simple circular aperture
as in Helix, but the lower lip is produced outwards into an " inferior pallial
lobe " {ipl) such as occurs in Chilma according to Lang (1900). This
lobe is deeply grooved, the groove being triangular in shape, with the apex
directed backwards towards the pallial chamber (fig. 2, g). The anus is
situated at the apex of this groove. Hutton (1879) describes and figures
the anus as being to the right of the pulmonary aperture, and both Hutton
and Quov and Gaimard draw the triangular furrow mentioned above as if
it were part of the rectum. The anus is really posterior to the pulmonary
aperture, although it is capable of being carried beyond it by the extension
of the inferior pallial lobe. When the faeces are passed to the exterior
the lips of the triangular groove probably close together, so that it is
temporarily converted into a tube. This prevents any faeces entering the
mantle-cavity. The inferior pallial lobe is also capable of closing against
the upper lip of the pulmonary aperture.

Internal Anatomy.
Organs of the Pallial Complex. (Fig. 3.)

The most conspicuous organ on the roof of the mantle-chamber is the
kidney, which presents several remarkable features. It is pure-white in
colour, and occupies the middle region of the mantle, across which it
extends obliquelv for about two-thirds of its breadth : somewhat flask-
shaped in outline, its apex is situated a short distance from the pulmonary
aperture, its broader base close to the left side of the roof of the mantle-
cavity. Running along its ventral surface is a narrow band of muscle {mu)
which arises from the middle of the hinder edge of the columella-muscle,
which is not shown in the figure. The portions of the kidney on either
side of this band are of unequal sizes.

The excretory aperture is a conspicuous longitudinal slit on a papilla
at its anterior end (ex), which projects freely from the mantle itself. The
wall of the kidney is thick, and internally bears numerous filiform papillae
which almost fill its cavity. The excretory products can be seen by teasing
up a portion and examining it in the fresh state : they appear as clear
spherical vesicles of dift'erent sizes, each of which has a very thin envelope
of a protoplasmic nature, surrounding a drop of hyaline, non-granular
fluid. In the centre of this are several round concretions of a brownish
colour.

Since the cells of the kidney are not ciliated, they will be unable to aid
in the removal of excretory products. Probably the muscle-band which

Farnie.— 77jf Structure of Ampliibola crenata Marfj/u.

73

runs along the dorsal surface of the kidney serves this purpose, by com-
pressing the flow and so driving the stuff forwards to the pore.

Lying on the roof of the mantle-cavity, close to the anterior end of the
kidney, and extending a short distance underneath it, is an oval mass of
white rounded particles covered by a thin pigmented membrane (hy). It
is situated in a curious depression which extends from the anterior end of

Fig. 3. — General dissection ( X 2). The mantle, which has been cut along the collar
and along the right side, has been turned to the animal's left, exposing the
pallial comi^lex. The head and neck have been opened to disclose the
alimentary tract and part of the genital system. The rectal sinus has been
severed at the point se, where it passes on to the roof of the mantle -chamber.
ag, albumen-gland ; as, anterior sinus ; c, crop ; re, cut edge of collar ;
cd, common genital duct ; ce, cut edge of mantle ; d, depression in front
of renal pove ; dgl, digestive gland ; div, diverticulum of oesophagus ;
ex, excretory pore ; g, groove into which anus opens ; gp, genital
pore ; gz, gizzard ; hgl, hermaplirodite gland ; hi/, hyj^obrancliial gland ;
irs, inferior rectal sinus ; int, intestine ; k, kidney ; I, lung ; Id, duct of
digestive gland ; m, mouth ; mc, collar ; mv, muscle-band on kidney ;
06', osphradium ; pa, pulmonary aperture ; pe, penis ; ])r, prostate ; pv, pul-
monary vein ; r, rectum ; se, cut end of rectal sinus ; sg, salivar,y gland ;
srs, superior rectal sinus ; st, stomach ; I, tentacle.

the kidney to the edge of the mantle above the pulmonary aperture. When
these particles are disturbed with a brush they give off a bluish fluorescent
foam, which quickly re-forms as often as it is brushed away. When
examined under the microscope the mass is seen to be made up of
rounded particles of different sizes, which contain crowds of small granules.
Though white by reflected light, the particles are brown by transmitted

74

Transactions.

light, and this colour is due to these granules, which are yellowish-brown
in colour. They look like droplets of fat. Possibly this structure repre-
sents the hypobranchial gland, which, as Lang mentions, is absent in all
pulmonates except AmpMhola. This peculiar and striking phenomenon
was met with in every specimen examined.

The heart lies at the base of the left side of the kidney : its wall is
formed of a thin, but tough, transparent membrane. The auricle is much
smaller than the ventricle, and broader posteriorly than at its anterior
end. Its wall is very thin, white, and but feebly muscular. The ventricle
is yellow in colour, and its wall is more muscular than that of the auricle.

The lung {I) is situated between the kidney and the anterior muscular
edge of the mantle (fig. 3). The blood-vessels traversing it are not clearly
visible, on account of the fact that they have very large cavities and
extremely thin walls. Owing to the small size and very delicate walls
of the auricle I was unable to inject the lung through the auricle, but I
succeeded in injecting it through the pedal sinus, as will be described in
the account of the circulatory system.

It is probable that dermal respiration plays as important a part as lung
respiration, and the thick layer of pigment covering the mantle in the
region of the lung may act as a respiratory pigment, as may also the
pigment covering the other parts of the body.

Alimentary System. (Fig. 3.)

The mouth [m) is placed between the two lappets of the head, and opens
into the cavity of the buccal mass. It is dark in colour, somewhat ovoid
in shape, the posterior portion being swollen. From the ventral surface
of this posterior portion the radula-sac extends backwards for a short
distance below the oesophagus. There is no jaw, nor did I find any trace

Fig. 4. — Portion of the radula ( x 700). tc, central teeth ; tl, lateral
teeth ; tm, marginal teeth.

of a rudiment of one. Two similar and symmetrical muscular masses pro-
ject into the cavity of the buccal mass in front of the radula, one on each
side of the middle line. They are dark in colour, and each is simply a
muscular thickening of the wall of its respective side.

The radula is spatulate in shape, the pointed end being anterior. There
are forty-four rows of teeth, the rows being set obliquely to the median

Farnie. — The Structure of Ampliibola ci'enata Martyn. 75

line. If the radula is mounted whole, only two kinds of teeth are visible,
as it is very difficult to spread it out flat, but if separated with needles three
distinct kinds can be distinguished (fig. 4) — (1) central, (2) lateral,
(3) marginal.

The central tooth {tc) has a broad base, bearing a median cusp which
is almost scpiare in outline. On either side of this are a number of smaller
cusps, six or seven, but the number differs with each central tooth and
often on the two sides. The cusps next to the median on either side are
smaller than those more remote ; but all taper to a sharp point. On either
side of the central tooth, and placed slightly above its upper margin, is a
small elongated lateral tooth {tl) which is somewhat blunt at the tip. Next
to this is another lateral tooth, of larger size, wdiich bears two cusps. The
division into cusps is not the same in every tooth. Some have a large outer
cusp and a very small, narrow inner one ; in others the cusps are of equal
length and breadth. But this difference is due probably to some being
more worn away than others. The remaining teeth on each side of the
laterals are the marginals {tyn). They are all curved, simple, conical teeth,
the tips of which are somewhat rounded.

Hutton (1879) describes only two kinds of teeth in the radula of Amphi-
hola — median and lateral. He also says the apices of the teeth point for-
ward. He gives a very rough sketch of the radula, but the shape is not
correct. In his second paper (1882) he redescribes the teeth. He notes
that the median tooth hks five or six cusps on either side, not two or
three as he formerly thought ; that there is a single lateral tooth, which
is often divided into two and varies in shape ; and that the rest of the
teeth are aculeate, and increase in length towards the margin.

The form and great size of the median tooth in Amphihola seems
unusual among pulmonates, for, judging from figures of radulas of other
pulmonates (Bronn's Thierreich, pi. xcv) — e.g., SipJionaria, Limnaeft,
Planorbis, Auricula — the median tooth is much smaller and simpler than
those on either side.

Perrier (1897) says that the form of the lingual teeth is related to diet :
that they are obtuse and generally numerous in herbivorous molluscs, but
have the form of a hook and are less numerous in carnivorous genera.
The teeth in Amphibola, therefore, agree with those of other herbivorous
molluscs.

A pair of salivary glands open into the buccal cavity (fig. 3, sg) near
the commencement of the oesophagus. Each gland is a long, linear, yellow,
sacculated structure, which passes through the nerve-collar and runs for
a short distance backward beside the oeso])hagus. Posteriorly they ta])er,
and are attached together and to the wall of the oesophagus.

The oesophagus extends backwards for about two-thirds the length of
the body. The posterior portion lies beneath the intestinal coil, and is
visible by transparency on the ventral surface of the uninjured animal.
As far as the intestinal coil the oesophagus is a narrow tube, but it then
dilates a little, the dilatation being marked off from the portion in front
and behind it bv constrictions. This specialized portion of the oesophagus
is the crop (c). Behind the crop the oesophagus becomes broader, and on
a level with the posterior end of the intestinal coil it bears a finger-shaped
diverticulum on the right side [cliv). Behind this diverticulum the oeso-
phagus becomes broader, and opens into the stomach {st), which is U-shaped,
the right limb being much smaller and narrower than the left, which
extends forwards towards the heart. An outgrowth of the left limb of the

76 Transactions.

stomach forms the gizzard {gz), which consists of two globular and sym-
metrical muscular projections separated by a muscular girdle. If the
stomach be opened and its wall examined, two folds of the epithelium in
the form of a pad will be seen on its floor, one behind the entrance to the
gizzard and the other just in front of it. From each of these two pads a
white wavy fold runs along the floor of the stomach towards the intestine.
Another wavy fold is present to the right of these two.

The stomach passes into the intestine {int), which, after running under-
neath the aorta on the left side of .the body, crosses the median line and
then forms the intestinal coil. The intestine is very long, measuring in some
specimens 8| in. when uncoiled. It is coiled round and round the albumen-
gland (ag) in a double spiral, the total number of complete coils being eight,
only five of which are visible on the surface. It coils four times from right
to left, the fourth coil crossing the middle of the albumen-gland trans-
versely. After coiling four times in the opposite direction it runs along the
right side of the first coil and passes into the rectum. The coils from left
to right alternate with those from right to left. The rectum (r) runs along
the right side of the body, and opens by the anus into the triangular
groove already mentioned.

The extremely long coiled intestine is characteristic of herbivorous
gasteropods. Amphihola has to pass through its alimentary canal enormous
quantities of mud in order to obtain the vegetable matter it requires.
Examination of the contents of the stomach and the mud itself shows that
the food consists principally of diatoms. Several difierent kinds were
found, the most frequent being Navicula. The faeces are deposited in long
circular strings.

Hutton's drawing (1879) of the gizzard and stomach is not quite correct ;
and he says there are only five coils in the intestine, all reversed. He
draws the triangular groove into which the anus opens as if it formed part
of the wall of the rectum itself.

The digestive gland (fig. 3, dgl) is very large, occupying together with
the gonad the hinder end of the body, and extending from the region of
the stomach up to the apex of the visceral spire. It occupies the median
portion of the spire, and lobes extend to the edge alternating with those
of the gonad. It is a much-lobed gland, dark brown in colour, and when
examined fresh it is seen to be dotted with numerous brown specks, the
so-called entochlorophyll granules.

The duct of the liver, which appears to be single, opens into the right
limb of the stomach, near its anterior end (Id).

The cells lining the lumen of the liver are long columnar cells, but they
are of varying lengths, some extending a considerable distance into the
cavity, others being very short. Two kinds of cells are distinguishable,
(a.) Liver cells : The large cells mentioned above, as well as smaller liver
cells, contain small granules, which give the yellowish-green colour to the
fresh liver. They stain pink in eosin. (b.) Ferment cells : These occur in
amongst the liver cells, and each has a large cavity containing a yellowish-
brown granule. These entochlorophyll granules can be seen at various
stages of formation, some cells containing minute granules, others granules
a little larger, others again very large granules. I tried several tests for
these granules, with the following results : They turned red when treated
with gentian violet, turned pale green when treated with methyl green,
remained brown when treated with osmic acid, and turned dark green when
treated with eosin. Acetic acid had no effect ; but they dissolved in caustic
potash.

Farnie. — The Structure of Ampliibola crenata Martyn. 77

These entochlorophyll granules are just as numerous in a fasting animal
as in one that has been feeding. The only difference I found was that the
granules from a fasting animal dissolved in caustic potash at once ; those
in the other animals took a long time, some of them not dissolving at all.

Schneider (1902) distinguishes three kinds of cells in the liver : (a) liver
cells, (&) excretory cells, (c) lime cells.

According to him, two sorts of granules occur in the " liver cells " —
small liver-granules, which stain red in eosin, and large excretion granules
(entochlorophyll). The " liver cells." he says, perform a nutritive and
secretory function. The " excretory cells," he says, stain a deep black in
osmic acid. The " lime cells " contain phosphate of lime.

The liver cells, as I have described, are present in the liver of Amphi-
hola, I tested for " excretory cells " with osmic acid, but obtained no
result ; and of " lime cells " I could find no trace.

MacMunn (1900) regards the cells containing entochlorophyll in molluscs
as " ferment cells." He also describes " lime cells," but finds no trace of
the so-called " excretory cells." He tested for glycogen in the liver, but
obtained no results. Nor have I found any trace of glycogen in these cells
in Amphibola.

The Nervous Sy stein. (Fig. 5.)

The nervous system consists of a ring of nerve-tissue surrounding the
buccal mass a short distance from its posterior end. The ganglia are
bright-orange in colour.

The cerebral ganglia are connected by a fairly stout cerebral commissure.
From each there passes backwards and downwards a slender connective to
the buccal ganglia, which are, as usual, of small size, and are situated
slightly behind the entrance of the salivary gland. From the buccal
ganglia, whicli are joined by the commissure, small nerves are given off
to the buccal mass.

From each cerebral ganglion the following five nerves are given off to
the anterior region of the head : («) A very fine nerve, which runs along-
side and close to the buccal mass, innervates the head lappet in the region
of the mouth ; (6) to the outer side of this is a nerve which almost at once
bifurcates ; (c) a very fine nerve, and {d) a stouter one which bifurcates
(these two run parallel with the posterior branch of nerve b) ; (e) the two
tentacular nerves run outwards and slightly upwards to enter the base of
each tentacle, and one of the two innervates the eye.

From the right ganglion there also arises a stout nerve (/) which runs
outwards and backwards and then bifurcates, the two branches supplying
respectively the anterior and posterior portions of the penis. There is no
corresponding nerve on the left side of the animal.

The pleural ganglia lie on the body- wall close to the cerebral, to whicli
each is connected by the cerebro-pleural connective. There are apparently
no nerves given off by these ganglia, but from the right pleuro-pedal con-
nective, and nearer to the pedal than to the pleural ganglion, a slender
nerve is given off which bifurcates almost immediately ; the anterior
branch (g), crossing below the penis, goes to the anterior end of the common
genital duct, the posterior supplies the body-wall. On the left side the
corresponding nerve, which also bifurcates, is, of course, entirely limited
to innervating the body-wall of this side.

The pedal ganglia are of about the same size as the cerebral ; the
pleuro-pedal connectives are very short. From the pedal ganglia several
large nerves supply all regions of the foot.

78

Transactions.

The only really interesting feature about the system relates to the
character of the visceral loop, which is much longer in Amjjhihola than in
ordinary pulmonates. From the right and left pleural ganglia a connective
passes back to the visceral ganglion {gv), which is situated on the body-
wall below the oesophagus, slightl}^ to the right side. It is about the same
size as one of the pedal ganglia, and, as we shall see later, probably repre-
sents the fused infra-intestinal and abdominal ganglia. From it are given
off two strong nerves. The anterior one (k) runs out to the right side,
ventral to the common genital duct, and bifurcates, one branch running up
to supply the inferior pallial lobe, and the other backwards alongside the
rectum. The posterior nerve [1) is stout, and runs backwards to supply the
organs in the visceral spire.

a

Tig. 5. — The nervous system in situ ( X 4). a, first cephalic nerve ; d, fourth cephalic
nerve ; /, penial nerve ; g, nerve of genital duct and body-wall ; /;, nerve
to osphradial ganglion (which is represented in outline as it lies on the roof) ;
j, nerve to body- wall ; k, rectal nerve and its branch to the inferior pallial
lobe ; /, visceral nerves ; tn, n, nerves to body-wall ; cd, common genital
duct ; ce, cut edge of mantle ; gac, accessory ganglion ; cjos, osphradial
ganglion ; gsi, supra-intestinal ganglion ; gv, visceral ganglion ; i^e, penis ;
r, rectum ; t, tentacle.

A short distance from the pleural ganglia the visceral commissure bears
two ganglia asymmetrically placed, the one on the right {gsi) being larger
and farther removed from the pleural ganglion than the one on the left {gac).
The right one may be termed the supra-intestinal, and from it are given off
two nerves.

The osphradial nerve {h) runs outwards to the osphradial ganglion, which
is situated on the mantle on the right side. The osphradial ganglion
itself gives off small nerves to the osphradium and the mantle. A slender
nerve {j) supplies the body-wall.

Farnie. — The Structure of Ainphibola crenata Martyn. 79

Tlie ganglion on the left is evidently an accessory ganglion {gnc) which
corresponds to that found on the visceral commissure in Ckili)ia (Lang,
1900, p. 220; and Naef, 1911). This accessory ganglion sends off a
nerve (n) which supplies the body-wall in the region of the collar.

Between this accessory ganglion and the visceral ganglion, but nearer
the latter, a nerve (m) arises from the visceral commissure and supplies
the columellar muscle. There is no ganglion corresponding to this nerve,
though perhaps it arises from cells in the accessory ganglion.

According to Pelseneer (1906), " In all Euthyneura except Actaeon,
Ghilina, and Latia the infra-intestinal ganglion is fused with the abdominal
in such a manner that the latter appears to participate in the innervation
of the mantle — i.e., inferior pallial lobe." Although we find that the
inferior pallial lobe in Amphibola is innervated by a nerve from the visceral
ganglion, yet serial sections across the latter give no indication of the
union of two such ganglia.

In another primitive pulmonate, Latia, however, as figured by Pelseneer
(1906) the approximation of the ganglionic centres has not gone so far, so
that the infra-intestinal ganglion, although very close to the abdominal, has
not fused witli it. Latia, like Afnphibola, has an accessory ganglion near
the left pleural. The nervous system in Latia enables one to see how the
condition in Amphibola may have come about.

The comparison of the nervous system of Limnaea, Chilina, and Amphi-
bola will show more clearly that the visceral ganglion in the last probably
represents the fused infra-intestinal and abdominal ganglia.

Button's description and figure of the nervous system do not agree with
what I have found to be the case. He says that in addition to the cerebral
and pedal ganglia there is " a parieto-splanchnic system, which consists of
seven ganglia, three on each side, and an azygos infra-oesophageal ganglion
connected with the others on either side."'

The anterior ganglion of his parieto-splanchnic system corresponds to the
pleural ganglion ; the posterior one to the accessory and supra-intestinal
respectively ; but I find no trace of the middle ganglion on either side.
He observes no dift'erence in size in these two ganglia, nor their asymmetry ;
nor does he mention any buccal ganglia. Nothing is said as to the various
nerves themselves.

Sense Organs. — Tactile organs are distributed all over the surface of the
head and foot. This is evident by the sensitiveness exhibited when the
animal is touched, and also by the rich nerve-sujiply, especially in the
anterior margin of the head.

A slatoci/st (or otocyst) is present on each pedal ganglion. It is an oval
vesicle, and contains numerous calcareous lenticular statoliths. When
examined fresh the statoliths oscillate in the fluid present in the vesicle.
These movements cease after a short time. Some of the statoliths lie on
the base of the nerve which leaves the statocyst. This nerve is seen
running close against the cerebro-pleural connective, so that one may con-
clude that the nerve of the statocyst comes from the cerebral ganglion.

The osphradium, is a simple epithelial ridge on the roof of the mantle-
cavity close to the collar, near the pulmonary aperture (fig. 3, os). A nerve
can be seen supplying it from the osphradial ganglion, which is in its turn
innervated from the supra-intestinal ganglion. Hutton (1879) figures and
describes the statocyst, but makes no mention of the osphradium.

The ej/e, as sections show, presents no peculiarity in structure ; it is
quite typically constructed. When a tentacle is mounted entire the eye

80 Transactions.

exhibits two distinct portions — a small linear light area, which represenfe
the lens ; and a deeply pigmented region, surrounding this but for its
anterior end, is the retina (fig. 7). Below the eye, embedded in the sub-
stance of the tentacle, may be seen a mass of rounded particles of carbonate
of lime such as occur throughout the tissues of the body.

Circulatory System. (Fig. 3.)

The only portion of the circulatory system that needs describing is the
venous system. In order to trace out the veins I injected the animal
through the foot. The best results were obtained with glycerine carmine,
and the kidney was invariably well injected.

The blood is collected into sinuses, as can be proved by thus injecting
the animal. From the larger sinuses the blood passes into two main tubular
sinuses or veins, the anterior sinus and the rectal sinus (fig. 3).

On the left side the blood from the body enters the anterior sinus {as),
which lies along the collar. Shortly before reaching the pulmonary aper-
ture it curves round to connect with the pulmonary vein {pv), which runs
close beside the kidney, to enter the anterior end of the auricle. The
anterior sinus gives afferent branches to the lung {I) along its whole course,
and the blood is collected by efferent branches which enter the pulmonary
vein. Thus, though some of the blood enters the pulmonary vein directly
from the anterior sinus, most of it reaches the heart only after filtering
through the vessels of the mantle-roof, which constitutes the lung.

The rectal sinus consists of two superposed channels, one above the
other — the inferior rectal sinus {irs) and the superior rectal sinus {srs). The
inferior rectal sinus commences at the inferior pallial lobe, and runs along
the floor of the mantle on the right side of and close to the rectum. It
extends back as far as the coils of the intestine, where it leaves the body-
waU floor of the mantle-chamber and, bending abruptly on itself, passes
forward along the roof of the mantle above its former course as the superior
rectal sinus [srs) as far as the pulmonary aperture. It then bends at right
angles and traverses the mantle as far as the commencement of the collar,
where it seems to cease. The blood, which enters both ends of the rectal
sinus, is carried through vessels traversing the mantle from the sinus to the
afferent renal vein, which runs along the dorsal surface of the kidney, and
which is therefore not shown in the drawing. The blood from the afferent
renal vein is then distributed through the sinuses in the connective tissue
which supports the filiform papillae of the kidney. These trabeculae of
connective tissue are traversed by axial sinuses which function as blood-
spaces. The blood thus reaches the efferent renal vein, which runs back-
wards near the ventral surface of the kidney, below the muscle-band, to
enter the auricle.

I have had great difficulty in tracing out the circulatory system. The
heart and blood-vessels have such extremely thin walls that it is impossible
to inject them from the heart. On one occasion the injection went from
the auricle along the pulmonary vein and into the anterior sinus directly
for a short distance, but I did not observe any injection on the wall of the
lung itself. By injecting through the foot the kidney was invariably
well injected, and sections across the lung showed that the vessels of the
lung had also been injected. As explained above, the afferent and efferent
'vessels on the wall of the lung are not as clearly visible in Amphibola as
in Helix and in other pulmonates. The same is true of the vessels running

Farnie. — Thr Struct urt of Aniphibola crenata yiartyn. 81

from the superior rectal sinus to the renal vein. Sections across the mantle
between the kidney and the rectal sinus, however, show the existence of
these blood-vessels.

The rectal sinus where it traverses the roof of the mantle is very con-
spicuous. Quoy and Gaimard (1832) draw it as if it were coming from the
ventricle. Hutton (1879) says it does not come from the ventricle, as Quoy
and Gaimard figure ; but he was unable to trace its connection, nor does he
seem to have traced out the circulatory system at all. When the animal
is opened by cutting along the right side of the mantle the rectal sinus is
necessarily cut across at its hinder end where it bends upwards on to the
roof of the mantle. I am not c{uite certain whether the superior rectal
sinus ends, as shown, near the collar (fig. 3), but I can trace it no farther.

Although the rectal sinus in Amphibola is a definite blood-vessel, I have
called it a " sinus " in order to compare more easily the circulatory system
with that of a ty])ical pulmonate — e.g., Helix. The superior rectal sinus,
then, evidently corresponds to the so-called rectal sinus of Helix, the
inferior rectal sinus being an additional vessel. The circulation of blood
in the lung and in the kidney agrees with that found in Helix, except that
in Amphibola, as in other primitive forms, the blood after being purified
in the kidney enters the heart directly.

Reproductive Organs. (Figs. 3, 6.)

Amphibola, like all the Euthyneura, is hermaphrodite. The genital
organs lie for the most part on the right side of the body, and comprise
the hermaphrodite gland (or ovotestis), albumen-gland, and an undivided
genital duct, into which open certain accessory organs.

The genital aperture is situated at the base of the right tentacle (fig. 2),
and presumably serves for the exit of both ova and spermatozoa, though I
have been unable to trace the course taken by the ova in their passage to
the exterior.

The ovotestis {hgl), together with the liver, occupies the visceral spire.
On the ventral surface it is plainly seen as a light-yellowish-brown organ
extending the whole length of the spire and embedded in the dark-brown
gastric gland. On the dorsal surface, however, only portions of the gland
are visible, separating the darker bands of the liver (fig. 3). It con-
sists of several lobules, each composed of numerous acini, the ends of
which are tipped with a dark-brown pigment. These lobules communicate
with small ductules which unite to form the hermaphrodite duct (M).
Posteriorly it is of a rich brown tint, but anteriorly it becomes paler till it
is white. This leaves the ovotestis as a very wavy duct, wdiich passes for-
ward on the ventral surface of the visceral spire to open into the common
genital duct (cd). Just before the point of entrance it gives oS a small
finger-shaped diverticulum, the seminal vesicle (sv), which underlies the duct
and rests close against the albumen-gland.

Pelseneer (1895) in a paper discussing the origin of hermaphroditism
in the MoUusca refers to Aniphibola in these terms : " The wall of the genital
gland shows distinct sexual difterences upon the two sides of the follicles,
in which the female side exhibits projections which are rudiments of the
acini of this sex." It will be remembered that Cottrell (1911) shows that
in Siphonaria the peripheral acini or follicles produce only eggs, whereas the
central ones produce spermatozoa. In Helix each follicle produces both kinds
of germ cell from any part of the epithelium. My own observations tend
to show that Pelseneer's statement is correct, except that I do not find

82

Transactions.

any " projections " from the side of the follicles. Sections across the
ovotestis of AmpJubola show that ova and spermatozoa are developed in
the same follicle. The spermatozoa, however, are confined to one jiortion
of wall, while from the rest of the epithelium the ova are formed. They
develop at a later period of the year. Spermatozoa are fully developed
in November, whereas at this date the ova are still small and not ready
to be discharged.

The common genital duct consists of two di.- tinct regions — (a) glandular,
(6) non-glandular. The glandular region (gld), into which the hermaphrodite
duct leads, lies in close contact with the posterior ventral portion of the

Pio (;_ — The genital system unravelled so as to exhibit as mueh as
possible ( X 2). The point of entrance of the prostate into the
cavity of the penis is indicated by dotted lines, ag, albumen-
glanci ; cd, common genital duct ; gld, glantlular portion of
common duct; gp, genital pore; hd, hermaphrodite duct;
hgl, hermaphrodite gland; pe, jienis ; pr, prostate; sv, seminal
vesicle.

albumen-gland (og). It is a white, mucilaginous, finely coiled tube, all
the coils of which I have not attempted to show in the drawing. This
tube gradually loses its mucilaginous character and widens to form the com-
mencement of the non-glandular portion (cd), w^hich narrows again as it
passes forward along the body-wall parallel to, and on the left of, the
rectum as a wavy duct of a cream colour. It reaches almost to the base
of the right tentacle, narrowing slightly as it does so. It then turns sharply
on itself, runs backwards, and after a short distance bends abruptly and
becomes much enlarged to form the penis (pe), which is a pyriform organ
of a light-cream colour with very muscular walls.

Farnie. — Tht Structure of Amphibola crenata Marfi/n. 83

Opening into the common duct are two diverticula, the albumen-gland
and the prostate. The albumen-gland {ag) opens into the distal end of
the glandular region opposite the point at which it passes into the non-
glandular. It is a brownish or orange-coloured tubule, which is very much
convoluted, as Hutton described, and forms a spherical mass, around which
are wound the numerous coils of the intestine. It is soft and of a somewhat
slimy consistency, and its cells secrete a great quantity of mucilaginous
material.

At the commencement of the penis is .situated the prostate (pr). It is
a much-convoluted blindly-ending tube, the distal half pure-white in colour,
the proximal half bright-yellow. From this end a slender duct leads away,
which, after running in the substances of the muscular wall of the penis,
communicates with its cavity near its opening to the exterior.

From the above description it will be seen that the condition of the
genital duct in Amphibola agrees with the most primitive condition in the
Euthyneura — that is, the duct is a sperm-oviduct throughout its length.
To this type of duct Lang (1900) and Pelseneer (1906) give the name
" monaulic."

As far as I can ascertain, the only other primitive pulmonate closely
related to Amphibola which exhibits a monaulic type of duct is Siphonaria.
Cottrell (1911) shows that the reproductive organs of this genus differ from
those of Amphibola in three chief features : There is no separate albumen-
gland, but the common duct is itself glandular, and the much-folded walls
of this duct constitute the albumen-gland ; the common duct enters the
penis close to its external pore and not at its distal extremity ; and there
is a large spermatheca, the long duct of which opens into the penis close to
the common duct. The absence in Amphibola of a distinct and definite
spermatheca seems a peculiarity.

Limnaea, which has affinities with Amphibola, has a " diaulic " type
of genital duct which cannot be compared with that of Amphibola. In
Chilina, another primitive pulmonate, the reproductive system of which
Lang (1900) figures and describes, the genital duct is " diaulic," the open-
ings of the sperm-duct and oviduct being at some distance from each other.
Considering the close relationship of Amphibola and Chilina, one would
have expected a greater similarity in their reproductive systems.

Quoy and Gaimard (1832) described the reproductive system of
Amphibola. They called the hermaphrodite gland the " ovary," and the
hermaphrodite duct the " oviduct." The albumen-gland they named
" testicule," and the genital duct which runs up on the right side the
" uterus." The opening of the female portion of the duct they figure on
the right side of the body, to the left of the anus. The penis they describe
as opening near the eye. in the place where the right tentacle would be if it
were represented in the figure.

Hutton (1879) correctly describes the hermaphrodite gland and the
hermaphrodite duct. The albumen-gland he says consists of two parts —
an albumen-gland proper and an accessory gland. The albumen-gland
proper opens into the hermaphrodite duct by a duct. According to him,
the hermaphrodite duct appeared to divide beyond the albumen-gland
into a large sacculated " oviduct," and a narrower but still broad " vas
deferens" (which is the "common duct" of my account), but , he could
not satisfy himself as to how the oviduct left the hermaphrodite duct. He
describes it as running along the left of the rectum, to which it is firmly
attached. " It appears to open inside the respiratory cavity," but of this he

84 Transact ions. !

says he was by no means certain. In a later paper (1882) he says he found
an animal with the oviduct distended with eggs, and it showed clearly that
his supposed " accessory gland " was the commencement of the oviduct.

I can find no opening of a female duct in the position figured by Quoy
and Gaimard, nor do I find any oviduct as described by Hutton. What
he supposes to be the commencement of the oviduct is the lower end of
the genital duct ; and serial sections in this region prove this to be so.

Sections across the right side of the body show no trace of a duct
between the rectum and the genital duct, whereas sections across the genital
duct itself show the existence of a deep fold in its wall, which serves to
divide the duct into two portions, presumably, during the passage of the
ova and spermatozoa.

Hutton (1879) says the eggs of Amphibola are " lodged on the exterior
of the mantle in a circular patch near the opening of the renal organ.
After fertilization they acquire a thick coat which gives them a bluish-
white pearly appearance." These are evidently the fluorescent particles I
described in connection with the kidney, where I mentioned that they were
products of the hypobranchial gland. They are not eggs, as I have
observed them in every animal without exception that I have examined
during the year. Moreover, they do not resemble eggs in the slightest
degree.

In his second article (1882) Hutton says he found the oviduct so
distended with eggs that he was able to trace its connection with the
hermaphrodite duct. The "eggs" he found in the oviduct were, I think,
the eggs of a parasitic Trematode. I have found them several times, and in
some animals they are so numerous on the right side in the muscular region
of the body-wall between the rectum and the genital duct that both the
rectum and the genital duct are hidden from view — i.e., in the position of
Hutton's supposed '" oviduct."

At present I am making systematic observations on Amphibola so as to
ascertain at what time the ova are laid and how they get to the exterior.
Every month I collect and preserve the animals in order to cut sections of
the reproductive organs and ascertain at what time of the year the eggs
are laid. If successful I shall try to follow out the development of the eggs
as far as possible.

Fig. 7. — The end of a tentacle, with the eye, cleared
and mounted entire, c, carbonate of lime ; I, lens;
p, pigment ; /, tip of tentacle.

Embedded in the connective tissue and amongst muscles in all parts of
the bod}', are numerous bodies composed of carbonate of lime. They are
extremely abundant, especially on the mantle-edge. They vary in size,
the smallest ones being found embedded in the base of the tentacle below
the eye (fig. 7). They vary in shape also, some being spherical, others

Farnie. — The Strticture of Amphibola crenata Marfyii. 85

ovoid, and others again more or less rhomboidal. Examined under the
high power some exhibit fine circuLar striations. When treated with acetic
acid they dissolve, giving off large bubbles of carbon dioxide, which can be
plainly seen with the naked eye.

Bibliography.

BouviER, E., 1892. Sur I'orgamsation des Amphiboles, Bull. Soc. Pliilom. Paris, 8,

vol. 4.
Cooke, A. H., 1895. Cambridge Xatural History, MoUusca.
COTTRET.L, A. J., 1911. Anatomy of Siphonaria obliquata (Sowerby), TraMs. N.Z. Inst.,

vol. 43, pp. 582-94.
HuTTON, F. W., 1879. Aim. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. 3, p. 181.
HtTTTOK, F. W., 1882. Tranc. N.Z. Inst., vol. 14, p. 156.
Lang, A.. 1900. Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Avatomie. d. unrbellose Thiere (2nd ed.),

Mollusca, by Karl Hescheler.
MacMunn, C. a., 1900. On the Gastric Gland of Mollusca and Decapod Crustacea,

Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, vol. 193b.
Naef, a., 1911. Studien z. generellen Morphol. d. Mollusken, in Spengel's Ergebnisse

u. Forischrifte d. Zoologie.
Pelseneer, p., 1895. Hermaphroditism in Mollusca, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. 37,

p. 19.
Pelseneer, P., 1906. Mollusca, in Lankcster's Treatise on Zoology.
Perrier, E., 1897. Traite de Zoologie.

QuoY and Gaimard, 1832. Voyage de V Astrolabe, vol. 2, p. 196 ; pi. 16, figs. 1-9.
.Schneider, A, 1902. Lehrbuch d. vergleich. Histologie d. Thiere, p. 570.
SuTER, H., 1913. Manual of the Neiv Zealand Mollusca, pp. 596-97, Wellington.
SuTER, H., 1915. Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca, Atlas of Plates, pi. 49,

figs. 9, 9a, Wellington.

Art. IX. — Contributions to a Fuller Knowledge of the Flora of New

Zealand : No. 6.

By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Hector Memorial Medallist, Curator

of the Auckland Museum.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 20th December, 191S ; received by Editor,
30th December, 1918 ; issued separately, 14th May, 1919.]

I. Kanunculaceae.
The Genus C'altha in the Southern Hemisphere.

A memoir bearing the above title, written by Captain A. W. HilL
Assistant Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, has recently appeared in
the Annals of Botany (No. cxxvii, July, 1918). In this, Captain Hill main-
tains the subdivision of the genus into the two sections, Psychro]}hila
and Pojndago, proposed by de Candolle as far back as 1818, and shows
that the peculiar development of the leaf-auricles in PsychrophUa, which
includes the whole of the species found in the Southern Hemisphere, marks
off the section much more distinctly than the floral characters proposed
by de Candolle. Eleven species are included in the section, three of them
being described for the first time. Seven of the eleven are purely American
in their distribution, two of them advancing as far north as the Andes of
Ecuador or Bolivia ; the remaining five extending southwards into southern

86 Transactions.

Chile or Fuegia, two of them reaching the Falkland Islands. Four species
are Australasian, one being found in Victoria, another in Tasmania, and
two others (C. novae-zealandiae Hook. f. and C. ohtusa Cheesem.) in New
Zealand. Much information is afforded for the first time respecting the
degree of development of the leaf-auricles, and woodcuts are given of the
chief modifications, the leaves of both the New Zealand species being
figured.

It is worth remarking that the section Psychrophila is one of those plant-
groups proving an alliance between the floras of Australia, New Zealand,
and South America.

XVIII. Ehamnaceae.

Pomaderris elliptica Lab.

Kawliia district, growing luxuriantly on the fern-clad spurs and pro-
montories running down into the harbour ; Mr. E. H. Schnackenherg / An
extension of the southern range of this fine plant, the northern slopes of
Mount Pirongia being the previous known limit.

XXII. Leguminosae.
Chordospartium Stevensoni Cheesem.

Avon Valley, Marlborough ; H. F. Hursthouse ! This is a most inter-
esting discovery, the plant being previously known only from the original
habitat near the Clarence Bridge, South Marlborough, where it was collected
by Mr. George Stevenson in the summer of 1909. Mr. Hursthouse informs
me that in the Avon Valley it grows side by side with Notosjmrtnmi Car-
micJiaeliae, and that it is very difficult to distinguish the two in the absence
of fruit. He further remarks that when in bloom both are very beautiful
and striking plants, certain to attract notice even at a distance of half a
mile or more.

Mr. Hursthouse has also favoured me with a large supply of the seeds
of Chordospartium. It seems to be difficult of germination, for out of
great numbers planted, both inside and outside New Zealand, only three
plants have been reared.

XXVIII. Myrtaceae. .
Metrosideros Parkinsoni Buchanan.

Abundant at the southern end of the Paparoa Range, near Greymouth.
Particularly plentiful on the steep slopes south and south-east of Mount
Sewell, and also on a spur running to the west of Mount Davy, alt. 2,000 ft. ;
P. G. Morgan ! The above are the most southern localities yet recorded
for this fine plant.

I have also to record its discovery by Mr. W. R. B. Oliver on the summit
of Mount Hobson, Great Barrier Island, alt. 2,000 ft. The two specimens
kindly given to me by Mr. Oliver have rather narrower leaves than the
southern examples, and there are fewer flow^ers in the cymes, but otherwise
they entirely correspond. Its occurrence on the Great Barrier Island,
quite 350 miles in a straight line from the nearest of its southern habitats,
is a remarkable instance of discontinuous distribution, almost comparable
to the case of Pittosporum ohcordatum, where the only two localities
known — that of Kaitaia, in Mongonui County, and Akaroa, in Banks
Peninsula — are separated by 550 miles !

Cheesema>\ — ('onfributio)is to Knowledge of Flora of N.Z. 87

XXXIII. Umbellipeeae.

Aciphylla similis Cheesem.

Griffin Range, western Southern Alps, alt. 4,500-4,900 ft. ; P. G.
Morgan ! The Griffin Range is situated almost immediately to the south
of the Otira-Kumara Road, and a little distance below the point of con-
fluence of the Taipo and Taramakau Rivers. It has never been previously
visited by a botanist, and I am consequently much indebted to Mr. Morgan
for the few specimens he was able to secure during a hasty geological
examination of the district.

Aciphylla Kirkii Buchanan.

I am indebted to Mr. James Speden, of Gore, for excellent specimens
of this curious plant, collected at an altitude of 6,000 ft. on the Remark-
ables, near the lower end of Lake Wakatipu. Mr. Buchanan's plate and
description, given in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 19, p. 214, are far from correct ;
but they were admittedly founded on very imperfect material. In a
memoir on Aciphylla, now in course of preparation, I hope to publish an
amended description of this and other species of the genus.

Aciphylla simplex Petrie.

I have also to thank Mr. Speden for flowering specimens of this, also
gathered at an elevation of 6,000 ft. on the Remarkables, near Lake
Wakatipu..

XXXVII. RUBIACEAE.

Coprosma tenuicaulis Hook. f.

Tuamarina Swamp, near Blenheim, Marlborough, abundant ; J. H.
Macmahon I So far as I am aware, this is the first record of the occurrence
of this in the South Island.

XXXVIII. COMPOSITAE.

Celmisia Walkeri T. Kirk.

Several localities on the Humboldt and Eyre Mountains., Central Otago ;
J. Speden !

Celmisia ramulosa Hook. f.

Eyre Mountains, Central Otago, alt. 5,000-6,000 ft. ; J. Speden !

Celmisia lateralis Buchanan.

Mount Davy, southern end of the Paparoa Range, near Greymouth,
alt. 2,500-3,000 ft. ; P. G. Morgan ! This species has a pre-eminently
western distribution, and is seldom seen on the eastern side of the dividing
range.

Celmisia prorepens Petrie.

Eyre and Garvie Mountains, Central Otago ; J . Speden !

88 Transactions.

Celmisia dubia Cheesem.

Abundant on Mount Davy, southern end of the Paparoa Range, near
Greymouth, alt. 2,500-3,000 ft. ; P. G. Morgan ! This locality offers a
slight extension of the southern range of this plant.

Helichrysum grandiceps Hook. f.

Griffin Range, western Southern Alps, alt. 4,500-4,900 ft. ; P. G.
Morgan !

Abrotanella linearis Berggren.

Slopes of Mount Davy, southern end of the Paparoa Range, near Grey-
mouth, alt. 2,500-3,000 ft. : P. G. Morgan !

XLI. Campanulaceae.

Pratia perpusilla Hook. f.

Marlborough — Wairau River bed, near its mouth ; J . H. Macmalion !
The first specimens I have seen from the South Island ; but it is easily
overlooked, and probably has a wider range than is generally svipposed.

XLIII. Epacridaceae.

Dracophyllum Kirkii Berggren.

Griffin Range, western Southern Alps, alt. 4,500-4,900 ft. ; P. G.
Morgan !

XLIX. Loganiaceae.

Mitrasacme montana Hook. f. var. Helmsii T. Kirk.

Abundant from a little over 2,000 ft. to the summit (3,410 ft.) of Mount
Davy, at the south end of the Paparoa Range, near Greymouth ; P. G.
Morgan ! This is probably the locality where it was originally discovered
by Mr. Helms. I have not seen specimens from any locality outside the
Paparoa Range.

L. Gentianaceae.
Sebaea ovata R. Br.

Vicinity of Wanganui ; A. Allison! An entirely fresh locality for this
rare and local plant.

Gentiana patula Cheesem.

Griffin Range, western Southern Alps ; alt. 4,500-4,900 ft. ; P. G.
Morgan !

Gentiana bellidifolia Hook. f.

Griffin Range, western Southern Alps ; alt. 4,500-4,900 ft. ; P. G.
Morgan ! (with the preceding species).

LIV. SCROPHULARIACEAE.

Euphrasia Cockayniana Petrie.

Griffin Range, western Southern Alps ; alt. 4,500-4,900 ft. ; P. G.
Morgan !

Cheeseman. — C out ribut ions to Kiioirledgt of Flora of X .Z. 89

LXI. Nyctaginaceae.

Pisonia Brunoniana Endl.

I am informed by Mr. Robert Hustie that a small grove of Pisonia exists
on Cape Bream Tail, a little to the north of Mangawai. This locality, how-
ever, is not many miles distant from the Taranga Islands (Hen and
Chickens), where the plant is abundant.

LXII. LORANTHACEAE.

Korthalsella salicornioides Van Tiegh.

Queen Charlotte Sound, parasitic on Leptospermum ; J. H. Macmahon !
This is the first record, so far as I am aware, for the Marlborough Pro-
vincial District. (See my list of the known localities, given in Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, p. 182.)

LXXIV. Balanophoraceae.
Dactylanthus Taylori Hook. f.

Ranginui Range, near Mangapehi, Main Trunk Railway ; J. Corhitt !

LXXVI. Urticaceae.
Urtica ferox Forst.

Bay of Islands County, apparently confined to a waJii-tapu known as
Ngamahanga, situated about ten miles to the west of Kawakawa ; T. H.
Trevor ! This is a marked extension of the range of the species, which has
not been previously collected northwards of the Marikopa River, Kawhia,
quite two hundred miles away. It is (or, rather, was) abundant between
the Awakino and Mokau Rivers and Taumarunui, and is known from
several localities between the Main Trunk Railway and the Central Volcanic
Plateau. A locality near Te Aroha, reported to me many years ago, has
so far not been confirmed.

Mr. Trevor states that the Ngamahanga wahi-tapu contains about
29 acres. Up to this year cattle had barely penetrated into it, but they
are now working their way steadily towards the centre, and he anticijjates
that they will soon destroy the major portion of the undergrowth, including
the Urtica. So far as he can ascertain, it has never occupied an area much
exceeding an acre. Its greatest height is about 6 ft. The specimens for-
warded to me have leaves from 4 in. to 6 in. in length, and the stinging-
hairs are quite copious.

LXXVIII. CONIFERAE.

Dacrydium Bidwillii Hook. f.

Open pumice country at Tiroa, to the east of Mangapehi, Main Trunk
Railway; A. Wilson and J. C. Rolleston ! With the exception of the
extreme summit of Moehau (Cape Colville), this is the most northerly
locality known. Mr. Rolleston informs me that the Maoris call it " Aotea."

Phyllocladus glaucus Carr.

Several specimens in a patch of kauri forest near Birkdale, a few miles
from Auckland, on the northern side of the Waitemata Harbour ; H. B.
Matthews ! Quite an unexpected discovery. I am acquainted with but

90 Transactions.

two other localities in the Auckland District — one near the Waitakare
waterfall, where it was plentiful until the construction of the huge dam
for the Auckland water-supply destroyed most of the adjacent forest ; the
other a little to the north of the mouth of the Waitakare River.

Mr. E. Phillips Turner informs me that a few plants of P. glaucus
exist in a ravine near the base of Rainbow Mountain, near Waiotapu ; and
that it is plentiful at Lake Waikare-iti, near Waikaremoana. The latter is
the most easterly locality known.

LXXIX. Orchidaceae.
Thelymitra pachyphylla Cheesem.

To this species I refer specimens of a Thelymitra collected by Mr. H. B.
Matthews between Erua and Makatote, to the west of Ruapehu. It agrees
with T. pachyphylla in the broad and flat erect staminodia, the margins of
which are furnished with simple or branched fimbriae ; and the size, mode
of growth, and foliage are all very similar. But the flowers are smaller,
and the middle lobe of the column shorter and crenulate.

XCI. Cyperaceae.
Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb.

Abundant in swamps on the seaward side of the cliffs to the north of
the Manukau Harbour ; T. F. C. In this locality it is certainly a recent
introduction ; nor am I aware that it has been previously collected in New
Zealand outside the North Cape peninsula. But its nativity in any part of
New Zealand must be regarded as exceedinglv doubtful.

Carpha alpina R. Br.

Mr. P. G. Morgmt sends me a highly depauperated state from the

summit of Mount Frederic, north of the Buller Valley ; alt. 3,500 ft It

forms small dense patches barely more than an inch in height, and the
inflorescence is reduced to one or two spikelets.

XCII. Gramineae.

Ehrharta Colensoi Hook. f.

Griffin Range, western Southern Alps ; alt. 4,500-4,900 ft. ; P. G,
Morgan !

Microlaena polynoda Hook. f.

In great abundance on the site of the old Maori pa Te Korekore, near
Muriwai, about twenty-five miles north of the Manukau Heads ; T. F. C.
This is the only locality I am acquainted with in the Auckland District.

XCIII. Filices.

Asplenium japonicum Thunb.

Banks of the Waiaruhia River, a tributary of the Waitangi, Bay of
Islands County T. H. Trevor ! This locality is some distance to the south
of the Okura River, where it was first discovered by Miss Clarke. (See
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 22, p. 448.)

Chebseman. — Contributions to Knowledge of Flora of A .Z. 91

Naturalized Plants.
Aster subulatus Michx.

This plant was first noticed in the vicinity of Auckland about twelve
years ago, and soon became plentiful, especially in moist places on harbour
reclamations, by roadsides and ditches, &c. It is a native of the United
States, where it is principally found in brackish-water marshes, ranging
from New Hampshire to Florida.

Erigeron annuus Linn.

Has appeared in some c{uantity in freshly sown grass at Otukai,
Mongonui, January, 1917 ; H. Carse ! So far as I am aware, this is
the first record of the occurrence of this plant in New Zealand. Native
of North America, where it has a wide range ; and it has also become
naturalized in Europe.

Chlora perfoliata Linn.

Manuka scrub at Parengarenga, North Cape district ; W . R. B. Oliver !
Now recorded for the first time in New Zealand. It is a native of western
and central Europe, extending to north Africa and western Asia.

Emex australis Stein.

Near Parkhurst, Kaipara ; H. P. McLeod / This species appears to be
of uncertain occurrence in New Zealand, and never lingers long in any one
locality. It has a wide distribution in South and Western Australia and
South Africa.

Tradescantia fluminensis Veil.

A garden escape in many localities in the vicinity of Auckland, where
it has received the local name of " wandering-jew." Has become specially
abundant on portions of the Mount Eden lava-fields ; T. F. C. Mongonui
County — has become plentiful on river-banks near Awanui and Kaitaia,
and also covers considerable areas in flat swampy forest ; H. Carse ! Mr.
B. C. Aston also informs me that it is spreading fast in the vicinity of
Wellington. Native of South America, from the south of Brazil to Uruguay
and Monte Video.

Elodea canadensis Michx.

Clear running streams near Featherston, not common ; K. W. Allison!
Considering how rapidly this plant increased when first introduced into
Britain, it is somewhat remarkable that its spread in New Zealand has been
so slow since its first introduction in 1870.

Panicum Lindheimeri Nash.

Vicinity of Kaitaia, Mongonui County ; H. B. Matthews ! Originally
found on the summit of a hill by Kerikeri Pa, near Kaitaia ; but it has
since been observed in several localities in the district. I am indebted to
Dr. Stapf, of the Kew Herbarium, for the identification. Native of North
America, where it is said to be a common and widely distributed species,
found in dry woods and open grounds from Maine to northern Florida, and
westwards to southern California.

92 Transactions.

Cynosupjs echinatus Linn.

I am indebted to Mr. J. P. Kalaugher for specimens collected by
roadsides at Waihi. I believe this is the first record for the Auckland
Provincial District.

Selaginella denticulata Link.

Has been known for many years as a garden escape at Pakaraka, Bay of
Islands, and has lately appeared in great abundance on the banks of several
swampy creeks in the neighbourhood ; T. H. Trevor ! I am also informed
by Mr. B. C. Aston that it is not uncommon in several localities near Wel-
lington. As it is now firmly established in the Bay of Islands locality,
its further increase may be anticipated.

Art. X. — So7ne Additions to the New Zealand Flora.

By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., P.Z.S., Hector Memorial Medallist, Curator

of the Auckland Museum.

[Bead before (he AucJcland Institute, 20th December, 1918 ; received by Editor,
30th December, 1918 ; issued separately, 14th May, 1919.]

1. Ligusticum petraeum Cheesem. n. sp.

Species cum Angelica decipiens Hook. f. et Ligusticum aromaticmn
Hook. f. confusa, a priore fructu, a posteriore foliis et floribus diflert.

Herba aromatica, 5-13 cm. alta. Radix robusta. longe attenuata, ad
apicem reliquis foliorum emarcidorum vestita. Folia numerosa, diffusa,
2-5-10 cm. longa, subcoriacea aut herbacea, piunata ; petioli 1-6 cm. longi,
basi in vaginam expansi. Pinnae 4-8 jugae, 5-12 mm. longae, ovatae vel
ovato-deltoideae, profunde incisae ; lobis acutis vel subacutis, nunquam
piliferis. Pedunculi multi, graciles, nudi, foliis longiores aub breviores.
Umbellae compositae, 2-4 cm. diam., 4-8-radiatae. Involucri bracteae
parvae, lineari-subulatae, basi dilatatae. Flores albi. Calycis lobi acuti.
Carpella lineari-oblonga ; stylis longis, recurvis.

Hab. — South Island : Abundant on the north face of Mount Owen,
Nelson, alt. 4,000 ft., usually on the debris from limestone rocks ; T. F. C.
Also plentiful on the southern face of the same mountain ; W. Townson !
Broken River, Canterbury Alps, alt. 3,500 ft. : T. F. C. Takitimu Mountains,
Southland, alt. 3,500 ft. ; D. Petrie !

Very aromatic, 2-5 in. high. Root stout, long and tapering, clothed
at the top with the bases of the old leaves. Leaves numerous, all radical,
spreading, 1-4 in. long, subcoriaceous or herbaceous, pinnate ; petiole
from ^ to ^ of the length of the whole leaf, broadly sheathing at the base ;
leaflets 4-8 pairs, rarely more, i— | in. long, ovate or ovate-deltoid or broadly
deltoid in outUne, deeply and somewhat sharply incised, sometimes almost
pinnate at the base ; lobes obtuse or subacute, never hair-pointed. Flower-
ing-stems or peduncles many, longer or shorter than the leaves, rather
slender, not branched, naked or furnished with a small pinnatifid leaflet
about the middle. Umbels compound, |-1| in. diam. ; rays 4-8, slender,
unequal, J-f in. long. ; involucral bracts small, linear ; usually with a
dilated base. Flowers white ; calyx-lobes rather long, acute ; styles very
long, recurved. Fruit linear-oblong, J in. long, not seen quite ripe.

Cheeseman. — Additions to the N t ir Zealand Flora. 93

This has much of the habit and appearance of Angelica decipien.s, and the
two are easily confounded in the absence of fruit. There is also a resem-
blance to some states of L. aromaticum ; but in reality it differs in habit,
in the spreading leaves with their much more remotely placed pinnae, in
the unbranched flowering-stems, and particularly in the acute calyx-lobes,
and the very long recuryed styles. I have been acquainted with it for
many years.

2. Veronica Birleyi N. E. Brown in Keiv Bulletin for 1911, p. 345.

" Affinis F. spathulatae Benth., sed ramis crassioribus, foliis subsessilibus
et pedunculis multo brevioribus differt."

" Suffrutex nanus, 10 cm. altus, ramosus ; rami erecti, saepe flexuosi,
1-2 mm. crassi, puberuli demum sublignosi et giabri. Folia conferta vel
inferiora ad 4 mm. reniota, subsessilia, crassa, 6-9 mm. longa, 4-9 mm.
lata, cuneato-obovata vel orbiculata, basi plus minusve cuneata, breviter
et obtuse 3-7-loba, utrinque puberula, rubrotincta. Flores pauci, magni,
prope apicem ramorum axillares. Pedunculi 2-3 mm. longi, 1-2-flori,
bibracteati ; bracteae 4 mm. longae, lineari-spathulatae, obtusae, glandu-
loso - puberulae. Pedicelli 1-1-5 mm. iongi, glanduloso - puberuli. Calyx
4-partitus ; lobi 5-6 mm. longi, 2-5-2-75 mm. lati, oblongi, obtusi, glanduloso-
puberuli. Corolla ' magna, 5-mera, alba ' (Gibbs). Capsula 5 mm. longa,
4-4-5 mm. lata, glabra, in lobos oblongos obtusos 4 disrupta."

South Island : Between rocks on the top ridge of Mount Bonpland,
near Lake Wakatipu, 2435 m., February, 1908 ; Aliss L. G. Gibbs (No. 1172).

'' Allied to F. spathidata Benth., but differs in having much stouter
branches, subsessile leaves, a finer and entirely different pubescence, and
very much shorter peduncles. The corolla, according to Miss Gibbs, was
white, about f in. in diameter, with 5 subequal lobes ; several were col-
lected, but unfortunately they were lost. The name is given in honour
of Mr. Harry Birley, a well-known guide in the district, who accompanied
Miss Gibbs when this plant was collected."

I must express my indebtedness to Miss Gibbs for furnishing me with
one of the type specimens. Mr. Brown's description appears to have been
overlooked by most New Zealand botanists, for when, a feAv years later,
flowerless specimens were collected on the Copland Pass by Mr. P. Graham,
Chief Guide at the Mount Cook Hermitage, they were described as a new
species by Mr. D. Petrie, under the name of Veronica Grahami. {Tnins.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 45, p. 273, 1913.)

In March, 1917, it was again collected by Mr. W. A. Thomson and
Mr. J. Speden in considerable quantity at an elevation of 5,000 ft. on Mount
Tennyson, near Garston, Lake Wakatipu. An excellent series of specimens
was obtained, showing that the plant attains a somewhat greater size than
had been supposed, a single plant sometimes covering an area 6 in. to
9 in. across. Late in autumn the old leaves become almost glabrous, but
the younger shoots are always densely puberulous. The flowers vary in
size from | in. to | in. in diameter.

As it seems inqjortant that the first description of this plant, and a
knowledge of the original locality, should be readily accessible in the
Dominion, I have placed the particulars on record herewith.

3. Earina aestivalis Cheesem. n. sp.

Affinis E. mucronatae a qua differt caulibus robustioribus firmioribusque,
foliis latioribus et brevioribus, floribus majoribus, labello longiore, lobis
lateralibus majoribus et acutioribus.

94 Transactions.

Hub. — Xortli Island : Near Ahipara, li. H. MaUJieivs 1 and at Kaiaka,
H. Carse ! both localities in Mongonui County. In forest at Muriwai, and
near the mouth of the Waitakare River : T. F. C. Forest by the Waikanae
River, Wellington ; B. H. Morison !

Rhizome creeijing, much as in E. fniicronata. Stems numerous, 9-18 in.
long, suberect or drooping, smooth, compressed, rather broader and stouter
than in E. mucronata, and firmer. Leaves 3-6 in. long, i-^ in. broad, flat,
stift', erect, narrow-linear, acute or acuminate ; midrib and veins con-
spicuous on the under-surface, not so evident above. Panicle terminal,
2-5 in. long ; branches or racemes 3-7, rarely more, 1-1| in. long, 4-7-
flowered ; bracts short and broad, clasping, many-striate. Flowers larger
than in E. mucronata, | in. diam. or more. Sepals and petals similar in
size and shape, linear-oblong, subacute. Lip longer than in E. mucronata,
and brighter in colour ; lateral lobes wider and more acute. Column short,
stouter.

I have been acquainted with this plant for several years, having
gathered specimens at the mouth of the Waitakare River as far back as
1895. But the differences between it and E. mucronata are mainly com-
parative, and before describing it I was anxious to satisfy myself as to how
far they were constant. Since then I have seen specimens gathered in
several localities between the North Cape peninsula and Wellington ; and
as I find that the distinguishing characters — viz., stouter and stiffer habit,
broader and more rigid leaves, larger flowers, longer lip with broader lateral
lobes, and stouter column — are constant throughout, I cannot any longer
refuse it distinction as a separate species. In addition to the above, there
is the important fact that it flowers from the beginning of Januar}^ to the
first week in February, whereas the flowering period of E. ynucronata is
two months earlier at least, stretching from the first week in October to
the middle or end of November. At Sluriwai, a few miles to the north of
the mouth of the Waitakare River, I observed it in full bloom on the 16th
January, 1916 ; while typical E. mucronata growing in the vicinity had
practically matured its capsules.

4. Thelymitra aemula Cheesem. n. sp.

Species ad T. ixioides proxime accedit, sed differt columnae lobis
lateralibus multo elongatis, et lobo mediano non cristato.

Caules robusti vel graciles, 18-60 cm. longi. Folium auguste lineare,
crassum, canaliculatum. Folia caulina vel bracteae vacuae 2. Flores
3-8, caerulei, in racemum 4-10 cm. longum dispositi. Sepala et petala
oblonga vel ovato-oblonga, obtusa vel subacuta. Columna brevis, crassa,
superne attenuata, 5-loba ; lobis lateralibus elongatis, complanatis, penicil-
latis ; lobo mediano breve, dorso non cristato.

Hah. — North Island : Leptospermum scrub at Birkdale, near Auckland ;
H. B. Matthews!

Stems stout or slender, 6-16 in. high. Leaf shorter than the stem,
narrow-linear, thick, channelled in front. Cauline leaves or empty bracts 2,
short. Flowers 3-8, about \ in. in diameter, blue, rather closeh' placed in
a raceme 1^4 in. long. Sepals and petals oblong or ovate-oblong, obtuse
or subacute. Column short, stout, broad at the base, narrowed above,
winged ; the wing extending behind the anther and free from it except
at the base, 5-lobed ; the two lateral lobes twice the length of the oth-ers,
flattened, fringed with cilia for the greater part of their length ; middle
lobe short and broad, thickened and denticulated at the tip, but smooth

Cheeseman. — Additions fn the Neiv Zealand, Flora. 95

at the back ; the two intermediate lobes distinct from the central one,
reaching half the height of the lateral lobes, broad, thick, and fleshy, jagged
at the top. Anther broad, produced into a pointed tij) that just overtops
the level of the median lobe of the colunm-wing.

This interesting discovery is due to the activity of Mr. H. B. Matthews,
so well known from the many additions made by him to the orchid
flora of the North Cape peninsula. It is doubtless very closely allied to
T. ixioides and the Australian T. canaliculata, but appears to constantly differ
in the lateral lobes of the column being much longer, flattened, and more
copiously penicillate ; and the middle lobe, although denticulate at the top,
is not at all warted or crested at the back. The flowers appear to be
invariably blue ; but the column is surrounded by a narrow band of violet
just below the lobes, above which the colour is bright yellow.

Art. XI. — A New Variety of Pteris macilenta.
By H. Carse.

[Bead before the Auckland Institute, 20th December., JOIS : received by Editor,
30th December, 1918 ; issued separately, 14th May, 1919.]

Pteris macilenta A. Eich. var. saxatilis Carse var. nov.

Planta decumbens vel suberecta ; quam typo in partibus omnibus minor
tenuiorque Stipes 8-24 cm. longus, tenuis, canaliculatus, flavus, suffuscus
vel purpureus, glaber, mfra squamosus. Frondes 10-36 cm. longae, 8-15 cm.
latae, ovatae vel lanceolatae, valde membranaceae, hand lucidae ut in typo,
3-4-pinnatae. Rhachis fere filiformis. Pinnae primariae distantes, inferiores
8-18 cm. longae, adscendentes ; pinna terminalis 25 mm. longa ; segmenta
ultima alte et acute dentata, apex saepe laciniatus. Sori in segmentorum
sinubus brevissimi.

This variety of Pteris macilenta has for years appeared to me worthy
of a distinctive name. It differs from the type in many important
characters, and, while occasionally forms connecting it with the type on
the one hand and with var pendida on the other are seen, the usual form
of this variety could not be mistaken. It is most plentiful in rather dry
.situations in forests, usually where detached rocks crop up.

The following are some of its main characters : The plant is decumbent
or suberect, with a very short usually erect rhizome. Stipes 8-24 cm. long,
slender, grooved, pale yellow, reddish-brown, or almost purple (as are the
rhachises), darker at the base, quite smooth except for a few scales below.
Fronds 10-36 cm. long, 8-15 cm. wide, ovate or lanceolate, very mem-
branous, pale dull green, glabrous, 3- rarely 4-pinnate below ; rachis almost
filiform ; primary pinnae distant, usually 6 pairs, lower opposite, 8-15 cm.
long, obliquely placed on the stipes ; terminal pinnae 25 mm. long.
Secondary pinnae stalked, on the lower branches again pinnate, on the
upper pinnatifid, terminal ones adnate and decurrent. Pinnules 12-20 mm.
long. Ultimate segments deeply and sharply toothed, the apex often
laciniate. Veins free, or very slightly anastomosing along the costa. Sori
in notches between the segments, very short.

Hub. — Among detached rocks in hilly forests, Mongonui County, Bay of
Islands, Whangarei, Manukau County : H. C. Coromandel Peninsula :
H. B. Matthews ! Thames ; D. PetrieJ

96 Transactions.

Art. Xll.~New Fossil Mollusca.

By J. A. Bartrum, Auckland University College,

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 20th December, 1918 ; received by Editor,
30th December, 1918 ; issued sejjurately, 14th May, 1919.]

Plate VI [.

The following Mollusca have mainly been collected from fossiliferous
sands near the mouth of Kawa Creek, about fourteen miles south of the
mouth of the Waikato River, which are described by the author in
another paper in this volume (pp. 101-G). One — Chione auriculata n. sp.
— was collected by the author when in company with Dr. Marshall at
Pakaurangi Point, near Batley, Kaipara Harbour, in 1916 ; another- —
Bittium oamaruticum n. sp. — was within a large gasteropod collected by
Dr. Marshall from the Hutchinson's Quarry beds at Oamaru and given to
the author; whilst there is one — Raeta (enuiplicata n. sp. — which was
collected by Mr. E. P. Worley from the Okahukura Tunnel. All were
submitted to the late Mr. H. Suter for identification, and pronounced by
hnn to be new species.

In addition to Chione auriculata n. sp. there was identified also by
Mr. Suter, from the Pakaurangi Point beds, along with other fossils collected
by the writer, a specimen of Mesalia striolata (Hutt.), a species not listed
by Dr. Marshall in his recent paper.*

Bittium oamaruticum n. sp. (Plate VII, fig. 1.)

Very small elongate tapering shell of 11 very slightly convex whorls
increasing gradually in size. Protoconch 2 J whorls, smooth : the other
whorls with strong subvertical rounded axial ribs subequal in width to the
interspaces, and made slightly nodular by 6 or 7 prominent rounded spiral
threads with linear interspaces. The radial costae are 13 in number on
later whorls, dying out on flattened base of body-whorl. Only one or
two spiral threads on base below the angle of the body-whorl. Sinuous
growth-lines distinct on base. Suture fairly deep, margined. Columella
smooth, oblique, imperfect. Aperture imperfect, one-third of body-whorl
being absent ; would appear to have been narrowly ovate and notched
jiosteriorly. Inner lip very narrow, a mere film on body- whorl.

Length, approximately 5 mm. ; diameter, 1-7 mm. .

Holotype in Auckland University College collection.

Localitv : Hutchinson's Quarrv beds. Collected by Dr. P. Marshall,
1917.

Remarks. — Classed as a new species of the genus by the late Mr. H.
Suter, though the lack of knowledge of the aperture appears to render the
generic position somewhat uncertain. If correctly placed, this genus is now
for the first time described fossil from New Zealand rocks.

* P. Makshall, The Tertiary Molluscan Fauna of Pakaurangi Point, Kaipara
Harbour, Trans. X.Z. hist., vol. 50, pp. 263-78, 1918.

Bartrum. — New Fossil Mollusca. 97

Chione auriculata n. sp. (Plate VII, fig. 2.)

Rounded-quadrate, small, rather compressed shell, almost equilateral ;
posterior end squarely truncated. Lunule large, lanceolate, very sharply
raised at dorsal margin into a prominent triangular ear-like portion ;
margins sharply incised. Beaks rather small, little raised, approximate ;
a distinct ridge from beak to lower angle of truncated posterior end of shell.

Anterior dorsal margin forming triangular projection at lunule, the
anterior side of triangle shortly forming an angle with the rounded anterior
end. Posterior dorsal margin descends gently in convex curve to prominent
angle with straightly truncated posterior end. Broadly rounded basal
margin forms distinct angle at posterior end, and merges gradually into
rounded anterior end.

Concentric ornamentation prominent ; growth-lines are densely crowded
and crossed by innumerable microscopic radiate lines. On lower half of
shell are strong, broad, rounded lamellae, distant and somewhat irregular,
6 almost complete lamellae visible. They broaden out at posterior ridge
of shell, and on dorsal portion beyond this are others nearer to the beak not
developed anteriorly beyond this ridge. The lamellae crowd on the lunule,
making it i:)laty.

Hinge and other internal characters could not be observed.

Length, 10-6 mm. ; height, 9 mm. ; diameter, 4-6 mm.

Holotype in author's collection ; complete but for anterior half of left
valve.

Localitv : Pakaurangi Point, Kaipara Harbour. Collected by Bartrum,
1916.

Circulus cingulatus ii. sp. (Plate VII, figs. 3 and 4.)

Very small, umbilicate. almost discoidal shell, coiled in a very flat spiral.
Whorls 3| or 4, very rapidly increasing, the protoconch smooth, the rest
sculptured by prominent spiral, angular, sharply elevated raised bands : 5 of
these are visible between the sutures on penultimate whorl, 15 on body-
whorl, regularly distributed, about 8 on basal portion, but absent from
umbilicus. Interspaces approximately ecjual in width to the ridges, striated
strongly by closely spaced transverse growth-lines, which alone ornament
umbilicus.

Aperture somewhat incomplete, apparently circular, with a minute
posterior sinus. Outer lip partially incomplete in holotype, moderately
sharp, slightly crenate externally owing to spiral sculjjture. Inner lip fairly
solid, forming partial margin to the umbilicus ; this latter not widely open
and showing no coiling of whorls.

Diameter, 4 mm. ; height, 1-9 mm.

Holotype and two imperfect paratypes in author's collection.

Localitv : Kawa Creek, south of Port Waikato. Collected by Bartrum,
1917.

Remarks. — The late Mr. Suter remarked that this species comes nearest
to C. politus Sut., from which, however, it is quite distinct.

Raeta tenuiplicata n. sp. (Plate VII, figs. 5 and 6.)

Shell of moderate size, very thin, obovate in outline, anterior end
rounded, posterior produced and angled. Apparently agape anteriorly.
Beaks directed forwards, sharp, fairly swollen, on posterior half of shell,
approximate. From just below the beak a distinct wide shallow sinus passes

4 — Trans.

98 Transact ions.

vertically to basal margin, giving shell a folded aspect. Anterior dorsal
margin descends gradually, straight at first and then according with broadly
convex anterior end. Posterior dorsal margin incomplete ; descends steeply,
apparently slightly concave, to narrowly produced posterior end. Anterior
end rather imperfect, but evidently angled with gently sinuous basal
margin, which rises obliquely towards narrowing posterior end.

Lunule not marked off, raised centrally, oval. Ornamentation shown
only on isolated remnants of original surface ; narrow, shallow concentric
grooves, somewhat irregularly excavated, closely spaced, about 2 per milli-
metre. Radiate close lines visible on surface of cast but not on shell itself.
Hinge and other internal characters unknown.

Length, actual 37 mm., restored approximately 42 mm. ; height,
32 mm. ; diameter, 18 mm.

Holotype and one paratype (both imperfect) in Auckland University
College collection.

Locality : Okahukura Tunnel. Collected by R. P. Worley, 1916.

Siphonalia propenodosa n, sp. (Plate VII, figs. 7 and 8.)

Oval turreted shell, solid, fairly large, closely approaching 8. nodosa
(Mart.) but distinct in sculpture. Whorls 8J, protoconch apparently 2|
whorls, the first smooth, the others axially costate. Spire short, angle 55°,
whorls gradually increasing. Suture not impressed, slightly sinuous.
Whorls somewhat angled, and lightly excavated above the angle. Aper-
ture imperfect on the holotype, but well shown in a paratype ; high, oval ;
outer lip fairly thin, slightly callous, and finely notched or crenulate within;
faintly angled at both keels of body-whorl. Posterior notch very distinct ;
anterior canal oblique, strongly recurved, broad, short, and truncated at
base. Columella slightly excavated above and inflected to the left at canal.
Inner lip spread broadly on body-whorl ; siphonal fascicle distinct, crossed
by coarse lamellae. Height of aperture and canal about twice height of
spire.

Ornamentation of spiral threads especially strong on base of body-whorl
and with finer interspaced threads particularly prominent there. On later
spire-whorls and on body-whorl close below suture is a spiral row of minute
elevated tubercles on a somewhat indistinct keel. On the whorls, at the
prominent carina at the angle, is a conspicuous spiral band of about 11
sharp nodules merging in earlier spire-whorls into distinct costae which run
to the anterior suture.

Besides these two rows of tubercles on the body - whorl are two
others — one prominent one on the lower of the carinae of the body-
whorl, and a faint one on the base a little below this last. Growth-lines
strongly shown and numerous on the body-whorl.

Height, 32 mm. ; diameter, 18 mm.

Holotype and two paratypes in author's collection.

Locality : Coast near Kawa Creek, south of Waikato River, Auckland.
Collected by Bartrum, 1917.

Remarks. — The late Mr. Suter remarked : " Near S. nodosa (Mart.), but
distinguished from it by the row of tubercles below the suture, and a fourth
row upon the base. The former character brings it near S. conoidea (Zitt.),
from which, however, it is quite distinct."'*

* Personal communication.

Bartrum. — New Fosxil MolJnsca. 99

Siphonalia kawaensis n. sp. (Plate VII, figs. 9 and 10.)

Three specimens in a moderately good state of preservation ; that
chosen as holotype is incomplete at the apex of the spire, but shows the
aperture and ornamentation well.

Shell oval, of medium size. Spire about half height of shell, angle 55°.
Whorls about 8, gradually increasing. Protoconch (shown by a paratype),
2 J smooth whorls.

In ornamentation identical with the preceding species, S. jnopenodosa,
except that the spiral band of nodules on the base of the body-whorl is less
distinct. Aperture oval, distinctly notched above, and passing below into
a broad short greatly reflected oblique anterior canal, truncated at the
base. Columella arcuate above, oblique below. Outer lip thin, sharply
angled at upper carina of body-whorl, less so at lower one, somewhat
crenulate within. Inner lip very broadly spread over body-whorl as a
thick callosity, which is produced into a most conspicuous strong tooth-
like process at about the middle height of aperture, just below the band of
nodules on the base.

Height, 43 mm. ; diameter, 25 mm.

Holotype and two paratypes in author's collection.

Locality : Coast near Kawa Creek, south of Waikato River, Auckland.
Collected by Bartrum, 1917.

Spisula aequilateralis gilberti n. var. (Plate VII, fi.g. 11.)

A very plentiful pelecypod in the Kawa bed, but difficult to collect
perfect on account of friability both of fossils and containing beds.
Unfortunately the author's specimens were crushed in transit by post
from the late Mr. Suter, who examined them, and are not therefore as
desirable types as might be obtained.

Shell moderately large, solid, with very heavy hinge with normal
dentition and characters. In ornamentation the variety agrees with the
normal species, the radial sculpture being perhaps closer and more distinct.
In outline and contour there are constant differences. The variety is
laterally more compressed, being less globose, and is flattened anteriorly
on lower half of valve. The posterior dorsal margin descends rapidly
from near the umbo and is straight, the dorsal region much flattened. The
anterior dorsal area also is somewhat flatter than in the normal species.

Length, 74 mm. ; height, 59 mm. ; half diameter, 17-5 mm.

Holotype and imperfect paratype in author's collection.

Locality : West coast, near Kawa Creek, south of Waikato River,
Auckland. Collected by Bartrum, 1917.

Terebra benesulcata n. sp. (Plate VII, fig. 12.)

Small, cylindrico-conical shell, with sharp elongate spire. Whorls 7 in
the incomplete holotype, rather flattish, gradually increasing ; suture
rather deep. Spire about 4 times height of aperture. Protoconch absent.

Growth-lines crowded, rather sinuous, specially distinct on penultimate
and body whorls. Two spiral rows of strong rounded tubercles, the lower
slightly the stronger, with a moderately deep broad sulcus between them,
characterize the whorls. Ten tubercles on the penultimate whorl ; those
of the lower row are continued as low costae to the anterior suture, but on
the body-whorl die out before reaching the basal portion. No other spiral
sculpture.
4*

1 00 Tra nsa c f ions .

Aperture oval, lightly notched posteriorly, and produced anteriorly into
a very short widely-open canal sharply bent to the left. Basal margin
straight, not notched. Columella fairly short, straight, subvertical. Inner
lip thinly and narrowly callous, ending in a point below. Outer lip
incomplete. Siphonal fasciole distinct.

Length of imperfect holotype. 9 mm. ; diameter, 2-3 mm.

Holotype and two fragmentary paratypes in author's collection.

Locality : West coast, near Kawa Creek, south of Waikato Eiver, Auck-
land. Collected by Bartrum, 1917.

Tugalia kawaensis n. sp. (Plate VII, fig. 13.)

Small, conical, rounded shell, somewhat produced anteriorly ; sub-
central, blunt apex, directed back. Posterior slope gentle, straight or only
slightly concave, anterior gently convex. Posterior and lateral margins
rounded, lateral margins converging towards broadly truncated anterior end.

SUt-fasciole distinctly raised as sharp fold of shell, but not sculpturally
differentiated except that it is stronger than adjacent radial riblets. These
latter are well developed, about 50 in number, well raised, rounded. Some
at intervals better developed than intervening ones ; interspaces subequal
to ribs. Broad, concentric, rounded ribs, about 8 or 9 in number, are pro-
minent in interspaces, and make the radial ribs themselves slightly nodular ;
sjiecially prominent in the fragmentary paratype. Towards apex concentric
and radial ribs alike diminish.

The interior muscle-scar hooked back anteriorly towards apex.

Length, 6-2 mm. ; breadth, 5-3 mm. ; height, 2-3 mm.

Holotype and a fragmentary paratype in author's collection.

Locality : West coast, near Kawa Creek, south of Waikato River, Auck-
land. Collected by Bartrum, 1917.

Turbo postulatus n. sp. (Plate VII, fig. 14.)

Unfortunately only a fragment, comprising little more than the basal
portion of the body-whorl, is available for description. It appeared to
the writer to represent a species of Turbo previously unknown in the New
Zealand fauna, a fact verified by the late Mr. Suter, who declared it to be
a new species of that genus.

In spite of the fragmentary nature of the holotype it seems advisable
for convenience of reference to give this shell a specific name and to append
its description.

Shell fairly large, diameter approximately 27 mm., imperforate ; columella
mainly straight, highly oblique, but bent to the right near produced basal
margin of aperture. Outer lip imperfect, thin ; inner lip a widespread
thin callosity on body-whorl and the somewhat excavated umbilical region,
tapering rapidly to a point below.

Sculpture of body-whorl distinctive : growth-lines very numerous and
prominent, crossing several convex, broad, well-raised spiral keels, these
latter separated by subequal interspaces. On the indefinitely delimited
basal portion of the body-whorl are approximately 4 such keels. The
fourth of these is much stronger and broader than the others ; it surrounds
the relatively depressed umbilical tract and causes a distinct sinuosity of
the basal margin of the aperture.

Holotype in author's collection.

Locality : West coast, near Kawa Creek, south of Waikato River, Auck-
land. Collected by Bartrum, 1917.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate VII.

I--

A

FlC4.

I.—

Fig.

2. — (

Figs

. 3, 4.

Fig.

5.— -

Fig.

6.—.

Fig.

7. — 1

Fig.

8.—.

Fig.

9.— -

Fig.

10—.

Fig.

11.—

Fig.

12.—

F.G.

IH.—

Fig.

14.—

'''(ice p

. 100.]

Bittiiitn oumurulicuni n. sp., 5 mm. x 1-7 mm.

Chiotie auricidata n. sj)., 10-0 mm. x 9 mm.

— Circulus cingulatus n. sp., holotype, diam. 4 mm.

Ra'^tn tenHipliraUi. n. sp., holotyi)e, .37 mm. X 32 mm.

Ra'"fa tenuiplkata n. sp., paratype.

SipJ/onalia propenodosa n. sjj., jmratyps

Siphonalirx propenodosa n. sp., holotype, 32 mm. x IS mm.

Siphonalia Icaivaensis n. sp., holotype, 43mm. x 25mm.

Siphoncdia kawuensis n. sp., paratyi)e.

Spisula arquilaterali-s gilberti n. var., holotype, 74 mm. x 59 mm.

Terebra benesulcata n. sj).. 9 mm. x 2 '3 mm.

Tugalia Icaivaensis n. sp.. 6-2 mm. x 5-3 mm.

Turbo posiulaliis n. sp., diam. approx. 27 mm.

BartrUjVI. — A Fossiliferous Bed at Kama Creek. 101

Art. XIII.— .4 Fossiliferous Bed at Kawa Creek, West Coast, South of

Waikato River, New Zealand.

By J. A. Bartrum, Auckland University College.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 20th December, 19hS ; received by Editor
30th December, WIS ; issued seimrately, 26th May., lOJfJ.]

Whilst on a liurried trip from Port Waikato to Raglan early in 1917 the
writer observed at the coast near Kawa Creek, about fourteen miles south
of the Waikato River, a very interesting section in the Tertiary succession
and discovered a fossiliferous bed that had escaped the notice of earlier
geologists examining the coast section. He was able later to spend about
a day and a half collecting from this bed, in which he found molluscan
fossils m great numbers, but very fragile and without great variety. No
doubt, however, further collecting will add greatly to the present list of
fauna. Even though incomplete, this list shows many points of interest
and the object of this note is to illustrate these, and to publish some facts
m connection with the more recent geological history of the Kawa Creek
district that may have more than local interest, and help to throw light
upon the mutual relationships of the later Notocene beds of a wide
diastrophic district.*

Resume of the Geology op Kawa Creek - Port Waikato District.
The oldest rocks exposed m the area studied are Mesozoic shales, sand-
stones, and local conglomerates, best exposed in the vicinity of Port Wai-
kato They are disposed in a somewhat irregular asymmetrical anticline
of which the axis is situated about half a mile east of the coast-line, to
which its strike approximates. The western limb is the steeper, the dips
there varying from 20° to 50°, whilst the strikes, unless where local
complications occur, range approximately from north-west to N. 5° E.
In the core of the anticline appear dark-grey to black marine shales with
locally abundant belemnites, moderately frequent pelecypods and brachio-
pods, and occasional gasteropods. Above these are well-bedded alternating
sandstones and shales, with minor conglomerate, in which plant-remains
are ubiquitous, and which furnish one of the best collecting-grounds for
Mesozoic plants in New Zealand. The late Dr. E. A. Newell Arber has
recently described the flora as Neocomian in age.f

Resting discordantly upon the eroded edges of the Neocomian are lime-
stones of the Notocene, usually fairly pure, but sometimes very marly
Near their base they are strongly algal, and contain abundant fragments
of the Mesozoic shales, a fact well shown near the mouth of the Huruwai
Stream on the coast section. What fossils have been collected from these
limestones have their analogues in the Oamaruian of other parts of New
Zealand, t Warping, minor folding, and some faulting have caused the

* J. A. Thomson, Diastrophic and other Considerations in Classification and
Con-elation, and the Existence of Minor Diastrophic Districts in the Notocene, Trans.
JS.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 397-417, 1917.

Ir^nJi^^ ^■.^''v'''^^ t''^''?.' ^^"^ ^^''^"' Mesozoic Floras of New Zealand, Palaeonto-
logical Bvlletm Ao. 6, N.Z. Geological Survey, 1917.

X Dr. -J. A. Thomson very kindly examined the brachiopods for the writer.

102 Transac/io/is.

corresponding basal portions of these Oamaruian limestones to appear at
very unequal heights above sea-level, whilst from many areas they have
been removed by erosion, leaving the Mesozoic rocks exposed. The pre-
Oamaruian surface of these last can only be surmised, for the evidence
obtained is inconclusive, but it certainly appears to have possessed the
broadness and simplicity so noticeable in the pre-Notocene surfaces of other
parts of New Zealand.*

Whatever may have been this surface, upon it was deposited the basal
limestone, and then a sequence of marls, blue sandstones, and impure fine-
grained limestones. Then came the gentle folding, or warping, with the
accompanying minor faulting that has already been noted — movements
that probably accompanied a period of relative land-elevation, evidenced
near the Kawa Creek by the sharp planation of the edges of the upper
beds of the Notocene sequence either by marine or subaerial erosion. The
reverse swing of the oscillation now caused this surface of planation to be
covered up by the fossiliferous marine sands that furnish one of the main
objects of this article. Their fossils show that they are practically the
uppermost Notocene, and it is probable that they are comparable with
certain massive sandstones, discovered recently by Dr. Henderson in the
Te Kuiti district, which unconformably overlie the upper beds of the
Tertiary sequence in that area.t

The closing members of the succession at the Kawa are not without
interest, and may now be given. Unconformably above the fossiliferous
sands is a local basaltic accumulation (both lava and agglomerate), followed
by about 30 ft. of fresh-water silts, in which are intercalated a few thin,
impure lignite-seams. Above these is a similar thickness of sands which
appear to be wind-bedded ; then a bed of pumice silt — itself a most interest-
ing discovery — which is followed by ancient dune sands rising to a height
of nearly 400 ft. above sea-level, and more or less continuous north-west to
Port Waikato.

Details of the Coastal Section near Kawa Creek.

Without entering upon a discussion of the relative merits of different
lines of evidence in the correlation of the New Zealand Notocene beds, or
of the vexed cjuestion of the substantial conformity or otherwise of these
strata, the writer considers that in the instance he is describing the mutual
stratigraphic relations of the beds have a very real importance. The
physical unconformity is very marked, and if it is coeval with that described
by Dr. Henderson in the Te Kuiti districtt it will no doubt serve a useful
])urpose in the classification of the latest Notocene strata of a wide district,
if not of New Zealand. It seems desirable, therefore, to set forth in greater
detail the observed section near the mouth of the Kawa Creek in which this
unconformity is evident.

It may be remarked, further, that there is a very definite disconforraity
evident in the sea-cliffs immediately south of the Waikawau Stream, which
is several miles north of the Kawa Creek, but this is in beds much below
those at the latter locality.

* See, for example, C. A. Cotton, The Structure and Later Geological History
of New Zealand, Geol. May., dec. 6, vol. 3, pp. 2-48-19, 314-20, 1916.

t J. Henderson, The Geology of the Te Kuiti Di.striet, with Special Reference to
Coal Prospects, N.Z. Journ. Sci. <& Tech., vol. 1, p. 114, 1918.

X J. Henderson, Joe. cit.

Bartrum. — A Fossiliferoi/s Bed at Kauri Creel,-. 103

Amongst the lower beds of the observed section at the Kawa Creek
locality are a series of thin greensand bands alternating with strong flaggy
glauconitic limestone layers up to 1 ft. in thickness, the whole comprising
a stratum about 15 ft. in depth, which strikes north and south and dips
westward at approximately 15°. A normal strike fault traverses the
section, accompanied by two lesser faults, and somewhat complicates its
interpretation. This fault has a throw varying up to aijout 40 ft., and dips
steeply eastward.

Above the flaggy bands are bluish-white calcareous mudstones exposed
for approximately 50 ft. of height in the sea-clifl"s ; they strike nearly north
and south, and dip gently (at approximately 8°) westward. They are poorly
fossiliferous, showing macroscopically merely a few sporadic Foraminifera
and molluscs: Crepidula monoxijla (Less.) was the only specifically detei-
minate mollusc collected. The greensand and flaggy calcareous bands just
beneath contain very abundant Foraminifera and occasional distorted
brachiopods. The former have been forwarded to Mr. F. Chapman, of
Melbourne Museum, but his report upon them is not yet available.

If one may judge from a rather limited number of fossils, mainly pelecy-
pods, brachiopods, and echinoids, in beds of the same sequence but at a
lower horizon, both sets of beds so far described — the flaggy bands and
overlying mudstone — are probably Middle or U})per Oaniaruian in age.*

The gently upturned edges of these beds are now most regularly trun-
cated by an erosion-plane, rising from approximately 50 ft. above sea-level
at the coastal section south of the Kawa Creek to about 80 ft. just north
of the mouth of the Kawa, about half a mile distant. From its extreme
regularity it would appear to be a result of marine planation, and it is
clearly to be noted that this followed the gentle folding or warping and
faulting which have just been described as apparent in the coast section.

On the erosion surface rest yellow to bluish sands crowded with casts or
actual shells of molluscs, a few bryozoans, corals, and other organisms.
Near the base the remains are moderately well preserved, and have fur-
nished the collection made by the author and listed in this paper. In
depth these sands reach about 40 ft. They cannot be followed northward
from the section now described, but what appears to be the same bed can
be seen near where the coastal route regains the coast a mile or so south-
wards after deviating inland to avoid some impassable basalt sea-cliffs, and
again still farther south. f

Here they have been disrupted by this basalt and overlain by columnar
lava. At the more northerh^ locality, similarly, other lava or agglomerate
rests on a locally irregular erosion surface of the fossiliferous sands, the
agglomerate showing considerable variation in thickness, in places thinning
to 1 ft. or so, in others thickening to as much as 20 ft. Close by is exposed
part of the somewhat complex vent of the volcano, whence came this
material, and whence poured forth a flood of basaltic lava reaching pro-
bably several miles westward, for a small islet more than a mile from the
shore appears to be basaltic. The columnar jointing of the flow renders it
an easy prey to the great waves characteristic of this exposed coast.

* -Ur. J. A. Thomson, who examined the bracliiopocls, reports that they are
certainly Oamaruian.

■f" Hutton observed these beds and noted their unconformable relations to the
underlying beds, but failed to obtain any marine fossils in them. He tentatively cor-
related them with the Waitemata sandstones, but suspected that they might be much
younger. (F. W. Hutton, On the Relative Ages of the Waitemata Series and the
Brown Coal Series of Drury and Waikato, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 3, jjp. 244-49, 1871.)

104

Transactions.

Above the volcanic material come grey and white silts with impure
lignite bands, all apparently of fluviatile origin, for they show good current-
bedding in places. There is a depth of 30 ft. of these silts, which are then
succeeded by an equal thickness of consolidated iron-stained sands, pro-
bably of dune origin ; and again above these there is a most interesting bed,
10 ft. to 20 ft. in depth, of pumice silts, also evidently of fluviatile origin.

A succession of dune-sands, rising to approximately 350 ft. above sea-
level, and deeply stained and cemented by concretionary limonite,
completes the section.

All these beds above the fossiliferous sands are undoubtedly Noto-
pleistocenef in age, and, though of considerable interest, are beyond the
scope of this paper, which is chiefly concerned with the fossiliferous sands. J

List of Mollusca from the Fossiliferous Sands.

The Mollusca listed below come from near the base of the fossiliferous
sands, and within a few feet, therefore, of the unconformity duly noted
in the Kawa section. The identifications in nearly all cases were made or
checked by the late Mr. H. Suter. For convenience of reference the genera
are arranged in alphabetical order in the list. Recent species are preceded
by an asterisk.

Ancilla hehera (Hutt.).

* novae-zelandiae (Sow.).

*Anomia cf. huttoni Sut.
*Arca novae-zelandiae Smith.

— — subvelata Sut.
*Barnea similis (Gray).
*Calyptraea maculata (Q. & G.).
*Cardiia calyculata (L.).
*Chione mesodesyna (Q. & G.).

meridional'is (Sow.).

* spissa (Desh.).

Cir cuius cingulatus Bartrum.§
Crepidula gregaria Sow.
* monoxyla (Less.).

striata (Hutt.).

*Dentalium ? huttoni T. W. Kirk.||

jiareorense Pilsbry and Sharp.

solidum Hutt.

*Diplodo7ita zelandica (Gray).
*Divaricella cumingi (Ad. & Ang.).
*Dosinia anus (Phil.).

* caerulea (Reeve).

* magna Hutt.

Drillia aequistriata Hutt.

* laevis (Hutt.).

*Emarginula striatula Q. & G.

Fulgoraria sp.

Glycymeris globosa (Hutt.).

* striatularis (Lamk.).

*Gomp]iina maorum Smith. ^
*Hipponix antiquatus (L.).**
*Leda bellula A. Ad.

Lima color ata Hutt.
*Loripes concinna Hutt.
*Mactra discors Gray.
* scalpellum Reeve.

Marginella ? harrisi Cossm.

* pygmaea Sow.

*Murex zelandicus Q. & G.
*Myodora antipodum Smith.
*Natica australis (Hutt.).

* zelandica Q. & G.

*Nucula hartvigiana Pfr.
* nitidula A. Ad.

Olivella neozelanica (Hutt.).

Ostrea, several sp.

t J. A. Thomson, loc. cit.

X It is perhaps permissible to point out that the pumice silts oiTer strong evidence
that the Waikato or some such river flowed westward to this portion of the coast in
early Notopleistocene times, bringing the pumice from the central rhyolitic country.
Pumice terraces of corresponding height above sea-level are described by Henderson
on the banks of the Waikato River near Cambridge (J. Henderson, N.Z. Journ.
Sci. <& Tech., vol. 1, pp. 112-15, 1918).

§ Described in this volume (p. 97).

II Two specimens, small, incomplete at anterior end, come near D. huttoni, but
ornamentation shows more numerous longitudinal ribs than in the type

^ Not before recorded fossil.

** New to fauna.

Babteum. — A Fossiliferous B<d at Kawa Creek.

105

Paphia curt a (Hutt.).
Pecten williamsoni Zittel.
Pinna sp.

Polinices amhiguus Sut.
* amphialiis (Watson).

ovatus (Hutt.).

sagenus Sut.

*Protocardia pulchella (Gray).
*Psammobia lineolata Gray.

* stangeri Gray.

Siphonalia costata (Hutt.).

kcnvaensis Bartrum.f

jrropenodosa Bartrum.l

*8pisula aequilateralis (Desli.).

aequilateralis gilherti

trum.t

* ordinaria (Smith).

Bar-

Stndhiolaria sp.
*Tellina alba Q. & G.

* glabrella Desli.

* huttoni sterrha Sut. J

* spenceri Sut.§

* urinatoria Sut.J

Terebra henesulcata Bartruni.t
*Tugalia hascauda Hedley.
* intermedia (Reeve).

kawaensis Bartrum.f

Turbo 'postulatus Bartruin.")"

Turris duplex Sut.

Turritella huttoni Cossm.

* symmetrica Hutt.

^Venericardia difficilis (Dosh.).

* lutea (Hutt.).

* purpurata (Desli.).

A critical examination of this list shows the following facts : Including
new ones, seventy-four species have been identified, four of them doubt-
fully so, and in addition three genera represented, one of which has no living
representatives. Forty-six of the species are still living — a, percentage of
62 ; one of these — Hipponix antiquatus (L.) — is new to the New Zealand
fauna, whilst three are recorded fossil for the first time. There are six
new species and one new variety.

A considerable amount of information about the upper Notocene fossils
probably awaits publication by the New Zealand Geological Survey, but,
depending upon literature now available, the writer finds that as many as
sixteen of the twenty-nine extinct species have not previously been described
from beds higher than the Awamoan stage. Eleven species are found
fossil only in the Wanganui and Petane beds,|| or are Recent species now first
recorded fossil, and one more — Dosinia anus (Phil.) — is known only from
Pliocene beds elsewhere in New Zealand.^

Dr. J. A. Thomson, Director of the Dominion Museum, who has available
for comparison many unpublished identifications of fossils from North
Otago and South Canterbury made by the late Mr. H. Suter, very kindly
compared the Kawa faunal lists with those of the various typical Canterbury,
North Otago, and other localities, and reported as follows : " I find that
forty-seven of your species are known from the Awamoan or lower beds,
while twenty-three are not.** These twenty-three include, of course, all the
new species, and the remaining seventeen are all Recent species with the
exception of Drillia aequistriata Hutt., Olivella neozelamca (Hutt.), and
Polinices amhiguus Sut. The last species I cannot trace ; the two former
are certainly Wanganuian."tt

_ _ _ _ y fc

t Described in tlxis volume (pp. 96-100).

% Not before recorded fos.sil.

§ The late Mr. Suter informed the writer that he obtained a specimen of this shell
in a collection from Poverty Bay made prior to 1874 (locality No. 60 of the New Zealand
Geological Survey). Otherwise it was formerly unknown fossil.

II Wanganui system (Pliocene) of Marshall (New Zealand and Adjacent Islands,
Handbuch der regionalen Geologie, 1911).

T[ H. Suter, Manual of the New Zealand Mullusca, 1913.

** Species doubtfully identified are omitted.

tt Personal communication.

106 T ransactions.

It appears evident from these considerations that the fauna is inter-
mediate between the Awamoan and Wanganiiian. It is unfortunate that
the beds immediately below the unconformity at the base of the fossiliferous
sandstones at the Kawa locality are so poorly fossiliferous, since their exact
correlation is a matter of great importance, and in addition a good idea
could then be gained of the relative importance of the above-mentioned
unconformity.

In conclusion, it is necessary only to point out once more the probability
of the wider occurrence of beds of the same age as the above in the district.
An example probably even now is furnished by certain sandstones overlying
unconformably the upper beds of the Tertiary sequence near Te Kuiti.*

Art. XIV. — Descriptions of New Native Flowermg-plants.

By D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 20th December, 1918 ; received by Editor,
30th December, 1918 ; issued separately, 26th May, 1919.]

1. Lagenophora cuneata sp. nov.

L. foliis parvis coriaceis cuneato-obovatis, + 1-5 cm. longis + 0-6 cm.
latis, supra parce tomentosis sub apice rotundato-dentatis, a marginibus
incrassatis ; culmis 12 cm. longis vel brevioribus erectis valde gracilibus,
sub apice + pubescentibus ; capitulis parvis + 6 mm. latis ; acheniis
parvulis vix curvatis anguste lineari-ovatis a marginibus incrassatis in
rostrum obliquum angustatis.

Stems loosely tufted, short, slender, spreading by siiort stolons. Culms
erect, stiff, very slender, brownish-green, 12 cm. high or less, with one or
two minute bracteoles, glabrous below, usually more or less pubescent
towards the top. Leaves radical, few, coriaceous, cuneately obovate,
±1-5 cm. long, + 0-6 cm. broad near the top, variable in outline, rarely
entire, usually with two bluntly rounded teeth near the apex, sometimes
with two pairs of teeth in the upper half of the blade, margins thickened
and when dry more or less recurved, glabrous below, more or less clothed
above and along the edges of the petioles with long whitish hairs consisting
of a single row of cells, narrowed into a flattened petiole about as long as
the blades, veins obscure. Heads small, + 6 mm. across ; involucral scales
oblong, thin and scarious at the edges, obtuse, purplish at the more or
less ciliately jagged tips ; ligules short, narrow, white, re volute. Achenes
■small, linear-obovate, scarcely curved, thickened at the margins, narrowed
into a short oblique beak.

Hab. — Eweburn and Sowburn Creeks, Maniototo County ; Cromwell ;
Flagstaff Hill, Dunedin ; Macrae's, Waihemo County ; Tasman Valley ;
Takititiiu Mountains : D. P.

2. Brachycome linearis comb. nov.

When the late Mr. T. Kirk transferred my Lagenophora linearis to the
genus Brachycome he substituted the specific name lineata for linearis. The
name B. linearis seems, however, not to be preoccupied, and by the present
rules of botanical nomenclature it is the proper name of the species in
question.

* J. Henderson, The Geology of the Te Kuiti District, with Special Reterenee to
Ooal Prospects, N.Z. .Journ. Sci. <{• Tech., vol. 1, p. 114, 1918.

Petrie. — Descripfion!< of New Native Flowering-plmits. 107

3. Urtica aspera sp. nov.

Planta U . imisae Poir. afiinis ; differt floribus dioeciis ; foliis subcori-
aceis obtuse nee alte serratis ; culmis ramis ac petiolis pilis pungentibus
dense vestitis ; foliorum nervis parce similiter vestitis.

A rather rigid niucli-branched dioecious herb, 30-40 cm. high. Stems
moderately stout, densely clothed with rather stiff white stinging hairs, as
are the branches, petioles, and inflorescence. Leaves opposite ; petioles
rather stout, as long as the blades or somewhat longer ; blades coarsely
and bluntly but not deeply serrate, ovate or ovate-deltoid, more rarely
cuneate at the base, 4: 5 cm. long, + 3 cm. broad, acute, subcoriaceous,
with scattered stinging hairs on the nerves both above and below. Male
inflorescence single or geminate from the axils of the upper leaves of the
stem and the branches, rather long spicate, bearing short rather distant
small clusters of flowers ; perianth glabrous ; female inflorescence simple
or branched, with more numerous crowded flowers ; nuts broadly ovoid,
enclosed in the not enlarged perianth.

Hab. — Among tussock-grass in the more open parts of Firewood Creek,
Cromwell, at about 2,300 ft. ; Sowburn, Maniototo County, among patches
of Discaria toutnatou Raoul : D. P. Head of Awatere Valley, Marlborough :
L. Cockayne. An indifferent specimen collected by B. C. Aston in the
Dee Valley, Clarence basin, is probably of this species.

4. Thelymitra caesia sp. nov.

T. puIcheUae Hk. f. afiinis ; dift'ert floribus subcoeruleis, sepalis petaliscjue
acutis, columnae lobo posteriore bifido ac apice subcrenulate incrassato,
lobis lateralibus latis valde complanatis brevioribus insuper a marginibus
subpectinate fimbriatis.

Stems moderately slender, 65 cm. high or less. Leaves shorter than the
stem, variable in length, long-sheathing at the base, linear, fleshy, concave
above, shining light green, midrib obscure. Cauline bracts usually two,
thin, short, sheathing for most of their length, rather abruptly acuminate ;
floral thin, lanceolate-acuminate, slightly exceeding the peduncles. Flowers
about five, laxly racemose, shortly pedunculate, large ( + 2| cm. across) ;
sepals and petals ovate or ovate-lanceolate, acute (sepals slightly the longer),
lavender-coloured but closely streaked with deep blue ; lip broader, paler,
sharply narrowed above and less acute. Column stout, broadly winged,
much shorter than the perianth, 3-lobed ; posterior lobe bifid, shorter than
the anther, its divisions truncately obtuse, thickened and slightly incurved
along their somewhat wavy brownish-yellow tops ; lateral lobes short but
equalling the anther, forming broad thin flattened plates, subjjectinately
fimbriate along the upper margins, the fimbriate processes more or less
cut into very short hair-like subdivisions ; anther broad, connective pro-
duced into a short slightly grooved tip.

Hah. — Birkdale-Glenfield Reserve, Waitemata County. Flowers late
November and early December.

This species was collected recently by Mr. H. B. Matthews, who has
for several years devoted much time and attention to hunting up the native
orchids, with quite remarkable enthusiasm, acuteness, and success. To
him I am indebted for the specimens examined and for a note of the tint of
the leaves and the colour of the perianth. When the species is better known
the range in stem-height and in the number of flowers may be greater than
the present description discloses. The species is clearly a fairly close ally
of T. mdchella Hk. f.

108

Transactions.

Art. XV. — Further Notes on the Horowhenua Coastal Plain and the

Associated Physiographic Features.

By G. Leslie Adkin.

[Read before, the Wellingfon Philosophical Society, 18th SejJtember, 1918 ; received by
Editor, 18th September, 1918 ; issued separately, ::6th May, 1919.]

In this paper I present further data bearing on the history of the Horo-
whenua coastal plain and the associated Quaternary deposits, and also
discuss some of the main points raised by the dissension of opinion between
Dr. Cotton* and myself. f

Dimensions and Eastern Limits of the Horowhenua Coastal Plain.

As shown by the following table, the Horowhenua coastal plain attained
its maximum breadth of twenty-six miles in the vicinity of Palmerston
North, J and gradually narrowed in a south-westerly direction.

Localities.

Two Miles

South of

Paekakariki.

Te Horo.

Otaki.

Muhunoa.

Levin.

Buckley

Road,

Shannon.

On

Palmerston-

Pahiatua

Road.

Width in miles . .

0

H 4

8

1
8^ 12 26

Altitudes above sea-
level, in feet§

320 330

360

530 540 i 770

1

Distances between,
in miles

17

4i

9

4 4J 26

The thickness of the coastal-i^lain formation|| depends upon the relief of
the early Pleistocene laud-surface upon which it lies, attaining its maxima
and minima along the margin of the old land according to its remoteness
from or proximity to the apexes of the Ohau, Otaki, and other fans. Two
miles south of Shannon the formation lies on the lower part of the northern
slope of the Ohau fan, and there its original thickness was about 500 ft.
On the lower edge of the southern slope of the fan of the Manawatu River,
near the margin of 1he old land due east of where Linton now stands, its
former thickness probably exceeded 600 ft. These figures are only approxi-
mate, and require to be verified or corrected by calculations based on
careful surveys.

* C. A. Cotton, The Geomorphology of the Coastal District of South-western
WelUngton, Traiis. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 212-22, 1918.

t G. L. Adkin, The Post-Tertiary Geological History of the Ohau River and of
the Adjacent Coastal Plain, Horowhenua County, North Island, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 43. pp. 496-520, 1911.

% The writer has at present no data as to the extent of the Horowhenua coastal
plain north of this point, beyond which, however, it is known to extend.

§ These are the altitudes of the highest traceable sandstone in the localities specified.

II The term " raiscd-beach formation " has been abandoned as being misleading,
substituting " coastal-plain formation," " coastal-plain sandstone," or, more briefly,
" sandstone formation."

Adkin. — The Horoirhenua C'oasfal I'lain. ]09

South of the Manawatu Gorge the former shore-line [i.e., the eastern
or inner margin of the coastal plain) lay along the western border of the
old land, and was very irregular and indented, the sea wiudinii in and out
round the projecting spurs. Sea-cliffs were cut along the old-land margin,
and these in places are in a good state of preservation, notably near
Paekakariki, Otaki, and Ohau, and between Shannon and Tokomaru.

As shown by the altitude of the upper edge of the coastal plain on the
Palmerston-Pahiatua Road (see above table), it is evident that prior to its
initial emergence an arm of the sea ran through the Manawatu Gorge and
spread out in the Woodville-Pahiatua-Dannevirke district to form a shallow
harbour or estuary, into which the Manawatu River flowed. " Lacustrine
deposits " are reported to exist in the district defined, the supposed former
lake being due to the ponding of the Manawatu River by an unusually rapid
uplift of the mountain axis.* This theory is now shown to be erroneous ;
the supposed lake was in reality an estuary, and the so-called " lacustrine
deposits " are doubtless estuarine deposits.

Dissection and Topographic Development of the Horowhenua

Coastal Plain.

Since its uplift above sea-level the coastal plain has been very thoroughly
dissected by the rivers and streams that extended their courses across it,
assisted by others that take their rise within its borders. Extensive
stretches of plain unbroken by the marks of stream erosion, which at first
must have been the predominant feature, no longer exist. Instead, irregular
strips and areas of flat open plain are intersected by a network of water-
courses. These flat areas, however, are not the original surface of the
coastal plain, but denuded surfaces corresponding to the original one. The
erosion by rain, for instance, uniformly lowered the surface of large areas,
the resultant silt being washed into the channels of the then less-developed
stream-systems.

The rivers, the larger of the minor streams, and the lesser ones have all
left their distinctive marks upon the plain, producing a diversity of surface
forms. The present topography therefore varies from youthful to mature.

The rivers, the former fan-builders, in their passage from the hills to
the sea rapidly cut into the soft marine beds (or sandstone, as they may
briefly be designated), and swept them clear away, exposing their fans,
without excejjtion, to a greater or less extent.

The usual work of the larger of the minor streams was to carve wide
shallow cliannels in the sandstone, and later to aggrade their bottoms
with fine alluvium, forming flood-plains often of considerable fertility.
Bordering the courses of these streams the topography of the sandstone
has often reached a mature stage — of low relief and smooth curved
contours.

The lesser minor streams are for the most part tributaries of the larger
ones. Many take their rise in the plain, and occupy narrow youthful
channels divided by broad flat-topped sandstone ridges. Others of brisker
flow, with their sources in the hills, have cut in the sandstone formation a
descending succession of wide-flaring, flat floors, usually free from even
a veneer of alluvium, and opening out at different levels into the valley

* D. Petkie, Account of a Visit to Mount Hector, &c., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40,
p. 290, 1907.

110 Transactions.

of the trunk stream. These correspond to successive levels in the valley of
the trunk stream — namely, benches cut in the sandstone side of the valley
as it was deepened ; the surface of the built flood-plain ; and subsequent
levels cut in the flood-plain alluvium. Along the margin of the ranges the
lesser streams have deposited cones and steep slopes of alluvium ; these
attain their maximum development between Waikanae and Te Horo, and
north of Tokomaru.

Sufficient has been said to show that the topography of much of the
coastal plain is c|uite youthful, and that only small tracts here and there
have reached a mature or submature stage. On the other hand, two
portions exist in which, by reason of their position and the vagaries of
the drainage-lines, modification by stream erosion has been even less pro-
nounced than elsewhere, and their topography is strikingly youthful. These
portions, both situated at the foot of the ranges — one at Palmerston North,
the other near Shannon — have been somewhat isolated by the larger
adjacent streams, and, as their present surface has been but slightly lowered
from the original level, they stand out plateau-like above the surrounding
country. The comparatively few gullies intersecting them are as a rule
deep, steep-sided, and narrow, the wide flat-topped divides terminating
abruptly at the top of the gully- walls. A peculiar feature is that the
streams draining these gullies seem to have reached a more mature stage
than the topography. The topography is undoubtedly youthful, as shown
by the wide, flat-topped uplands, but the streams themselves are sluggish,
and often meander on flat, graded bottoms, frequently swampy. The
explanation is probably the porous character of the formation, which retards
the development of the gullies and consequently of the topography, while
the streams have meanwhile attained a temporary base-level.

The Deformation of the Southern End of the Horowhenua

Coastal Plain.

Until recently the writer entertained the belief that the Horowhenua
coastal plain terminated, and that its inner margin descended to sea-level, in
a south-westerly direction, coincidently with the present complex lowland,
at a point about two miles south of Paekakariki. Doubt was cast on this
supposition by the compilation of the above table, which shows, inter alia,
the altitudes of the inner margin of the coastal plain southwards from the
vicinity of the Manawatu Gorge. As tabulated, these altitudes form a
descending series (marked by a certain step-like irregularity), proving the
differential character of the uplift that raised the coastal plain. The method
adopted to determine the height of the inner margin of the coastal plain
was to select suitable localities along its length and ascertain the altitude
of the highest traceable beds in those localities. The irregularity of the
altitudes obtained is explained by the denudation of the beds even in the
selected localities

On the Palmerston-Pahiatua Road, eight miles south of the Manawatu
Oorge, the coastal plain appears to have attained its maximum uplift, and
here the beds of its inner margin are found 770 ft. above the present sea-
level. Proceeding southwards, the beds on the inner margin are found at
decreasing altitudes until Te Horo is reached, near which place the sand-
stone beds are found at a height of 320 ft. If, as previously supposed, the
inner margin of the coastal plain descended to sea-level at Paekakariki, the
average slope of that margin would have been about 13 ft. per mile, and
the greatest altitude it attained at Te Horo would have been 200 ft. At

Adkin. — The Horoivhenua Coastal Plain.

Ill

Te Horo the sandstone beds are, however, traceable at the foot of the hills
up to a height of 320 ft., leaving a discrepancy of 120 ft.

Plotted diagrammatically to scale (fig. 1), the available data show that
the inner margin of the coastal plain had a southward slope of only 10 ft.
per mile, so that the southern end of the plain originally extended beyond
Paekakariki some miles south of the present entrance of Porirua Harbour.
This being so, it is evident that some great change has taken place, a
change involving the destruction, or at any rate the disappearance, of the
former southern portion of the coastal plain, since south of Paekakariki a
bold steep coast, and not a lowland fringe, borders the sea. I shall now
endeavour to demonstrate the cause and features of this change, and shall
also present certain corroborative phenomena.

The south-western portion of the Wellington Province may be regarded
as consisting of a series of earth-blocks, both large and small. The largest
block, comprising the Tararua and Rimutaka Ranges, is bounded on the east
by the Wairarapa fault, and is rising, as evidenced by its relation to the
Wairarapa depression, situated at the base of its steep eastward-facing
scarp, and by the emergence of the Horowhenua coastal plain, which lies

Fig. 1. — Longitudinal section of the Horowhenua coastal plain, showing the sagging
(warping) of its southern end due to the subsidence that drowned the
IPorirua-Horokiwi valley-system to form Porirua Harbour.

on its tilted back slope. Another large block, comprising what is known
as the Wellington Peninsula, is also rising, seemingly rather uniformly, as
shown by the platforms and benches of the Kaukau and Tongue Point
cycles of Cotton.* Between these two lies the subsiding Port Nicholson-
Porirua Harbour block, now cut in two by the Wellington fault. On the
south-east, or downthrow, side of the fault the subsiding tendency became
a pronounced fact, and this part of the block has been depressed below
the present sea-level to form the harbour of Wellington ; on the other
hand, the portion north-west of the fault was differentially tilted north-
ward, drowning the stream-valleys incised upon its seaward border to form
the branching Porirua Harbour.

* C. A. Cotton, Notes on Wellington Physiography, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 44,
pp. 246-65 (ref. to pp. 248-51), 1912.

112 Transactions.

Tlie subsidence or downward tilting of the northern part of the Port
Nicholson - Porirua block involved the southern end of the Horowhenua
coastal plain, which lay athwart its axis, gradually bending and depressing
it below sea-level somewhat in the fashion depicted in fig. 1.* North-
westward of the main axis of subsidence the surface of the subsiding
portion of the coastal plain sloped up to the normal slowly rising surface
of that part lying beyond the influence of the Port Nicholson - Porirua
block, t

It is a well-established physiographic principle that sea erosion is seldom,
if ever, extensively developed on a rising coast, but that subsidence not
only causes sea-advance but also facilitates sea erosion. On the rising
and emerging major portion of the Horowhenua coastal plain there is no
evidence of its seaward edge having been cut back by the action of the
sea ; on the other hand, the down-warping of the narrow southern end of
the coastal plain permitted not only a local inroad of the sea, but also
.simultaneous marine erosion. This erosion advanced, in the immediate
vicinity of the intersecting axis of subsidence, to the cliff ed margin of the
old land : this took place a couple of miles north-east of Paekakariki, as
pointed out by Cotton. J Farther away, as at Hadfield,§ the newer line of
cliffs lies half a mile to seaward of the old-land cliffs, and more remote
still they die out and do not reappear.

The Significance of the Riveb-cut Rock Floors in the Ohau

Valley.

The evidence I wish to bring forward in support of my contention! | that
the Horowhenua piedmont alluvial plain, formed by the lateral coalition of
the larger river-fans, was built up on a stationary surface at the foot of an
inland mountain range, and not, like the Canterbury Plain, as conclusively
demonstrated by Speight,^ laid down on a subsiding maritime area, is fur-
nished by the old river-cut rock floors in the intermont portion of the Ohau
valley. Unlike the Canterbury rivers, those of Horowhenua — e.g., the
Ohau — as the result of a fixed base-level, reached a state of perfect adjust-
ment of load to volume and grade. If the Ohau fan and valley-plain had
not reached completion, and if the deposition of detritus by the river had
not ceased, the rock floors, by which the area of the valley-plain was
considerably extended, could not have been formed. The capping of the
shingle beds of the valley-plain with a thick layer of clay alluvium was in
itself evidence of the termination of the task of fan-building ; and the
cutting of the rock floors by the powerful lateral corrasion which immedi-
atety followed conclusively proves the fact.

* This assumes the very recent advent of the Wellington fault. (See also Cotton
loc. cit., p. 258.)

t The southern end of the Horowhenua coastal plain was intersected obliquely by
the axial line of the Port Nicholson - Porirua block, the northern extension of which
is regarded as running through the gap at Pukerua railway -station, and thence, inside
the island of Kapiti, seawards, its general trend being slightly east of north. The
entrance to Porirua Harbour seems to be a submerged water-gap.

X Loc. cit. (1918), p. 218.

§ The coastal-plain formation has been truncated for a distance of a mile and a
half along the line of railwaj- northward from the Hadfield flag station, and cliffs from
.60 ft. to 90 ft. high have been developed.

II G. L. Adkin, loc. cit.. p. .504.

If R. Speight, A Preliminary Accoimt of the Geological Features of the Christ-
church Artesian Area, Tmns. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, pp. 421-24, 1911.

Adkin. — The Horowhtnua Coastal Plain. 113

Lateral corrasion was a negligible factor during the building of the
fan and valley-plain ; but with the cessation of deposition it became pre-
dominant, and the hill-spurs and ridges bounding the built part of the
valley-plain were cut back on a level with its surface. The large amount
of material derived from this lateral corrasion was transported across and
deposited beyond, and not upon, the surface of the fan, the spoil being
delivered to the trunk Cook Strait River, of which at that time the Ohau
was but a branch.

In several places the old rock floors still exist up to their original level,
and form small flat-topped rocky hills. Elsewhere they have been incised
by the Ohau and its tributaries rejuvenated in the present cycle of erosion,
and their former extent is marked by rock terraces capped by gravel veneers
of varying thicknesses. Little, if any, gravel or sliingle was deposited on
the original surface of the rock floors, showing how complete was the
transportation of coarse detritus by the river during the time of lateral
corrasion. Similar rock floors will doubtless be found in the intermont
portions of the valleys of the other Horowhenua rivers.

Dr. Cotton's Interpretation of the Physiography of the Coastal

Lowland.*

Cotton's views regarding the history and sequence of deposits of the
coastal lowland which extends from Paekakariki to Palmerston North and
beyond appear to be the result of a misconception arising from observa-
tions based for the most part on the extreme southern part of the coastal
belt. As shown above, that part of the coastal belt is not typical of
the whole, the important incidents of deformation and sea erosion being
peculiar to that locality. I hasten to say that Cotton's observations on
the area a few miles north-east of Paekakarikif are undoubtedly substan-
tially correct : it is the application of inferences drawn from that locality
to the coastal lowland in general to which exception must be taken.

The Sequence of the River-fans and the Sandstone Formation.

In the paper referred to, Cotton dissents from my view that the coalescing
fans of the rivers along this coast form the basal member of the Quaternary
formations, and that it (the basal member) is directly overlain by the sand-
stone formation (my Horowhenua coastal plain). Cotton puts the sandstone
formation at the base of the series, and regards the river-fans, with which
he classes all the gravel deposits of the lowland, as being " among the
youngest elements of the lowland physiography."

One of the chief causes of Cotton's divergent opinion as to the sequence
of these formations would seem to be the greater complexity of the lowland
than he at present recognizes. In addition to the coalescing fans (piedmont
alluvial plain) of the larger rivers, and the sandstone formation (Horowhenua
coastal plain), the deposits and activities of the minor streams, large and
small, have been the cause of innumerable complications. As these minor
streams drain the same terrains as the rivers, the gravels and other
deposits of both are in many respects similar, and frequently indistinguish-
able ; hence great confusion and false deductions may result from any but
the most careful study. The classing-together of the great river-fans and

* Loc. cit. (1918.). ^ Ibid., ]^. 21S.

114

Transactions.

the small fans, alluvial slopes, and flood-plains of the minor streams seems
inadvisable, since, according to the present writer's interpretation of the
physiographic history, a great space of time and two diastrophic move-
ments separated the building of the two groups of deposits. The super-
position of the coastal plain on the river-fans is, however, a conclusion
founded on facts, which are as follows : —

The exposed surface of the upper part of the Ohau fan surmounts the
right bank of the trench in which the river now flows, and extends to the
line of Queen Street, which runs east from the town of Levin. Northward
of this line a continuous sandstone landscape stretches away in the
direction of Shannon, and is traversed by the flood-plain of the Koputa-
roa Stream, a tributary of the Manawatu Eiver. Two miles and three-
quarters north-west of Queen Street an artesian well was sunk in the
Koputaroa flood-plain to a depth of 90 ft., and the beds pierced were
approximately as follows : —

Yellow clay

Gravel

Blue clay

Sand

Blue swamp-clay with wood

Shingle with seam of clav

9 ft.
10 ft.

3 ft.
56 ft.

4 ft.
8 ft.

[ Alluvium of Koputaroa
I Stream (flood-plain).

Sandstone formation.

Ohau fan.

As the site of this well is 58 ft. above sea-level, the surface of the Ohau
fan at this point is 24 ft. below sea-level, a level which corresponds very
exactly with the produced slope of the exposed surface of the fan between
the line of Queen Street and the fan-apex. The interfingering of fan gravels
and sandstone formation over a zone nearly three miles in width is in the
highest degree improbable, so the superposition of the sandstone on the
fan, and not the reverse, is thus established.

Similar relationships are revealed in the present valley of the Ohau
River at a point two mfles and a half up-stream from the Wellington-
Manawatu Eailway bridge. A river-cliif section shows the surface of the
Ohau fan surmounted by a thick undisturbed layer of sandstone, which
has been preserved in this site by overlying gravels derived from the initial
incision of the Ohau valley-plain when the cutting of the present trench-
like Ohau Valley commenced. This interesting stratigraphic occurrence is
shown and explained in the diagrams (fig. 2), and no further comment is
necessary here other than to emphasize its bearing on the question raised.

The Origin and Nature of the Sandstone Formation.

The evidence outlined above, by proving that the sandstone formation
lies upon the river-fans, and not vice versa, places serious difficulties in the
way of an acceptance of Cotton's theories of a prograded strand-plain com-
posed of gravel fans and peneplaned sand-dunes. The theory is forced to
demand a gradual secular subsidence of the area of deposition in order
to account for old land-surfaces contained within the gravel fans and now
depressed, in some cases hundreds of feet, below the present sea-level ; it
relies on the supply of an immense amount of waste with which to main-
tain its existence in the face of prolonged subsidence ; and it postulates
occasional small movements in a reverse direction to enable retrograda-
tions of the coast-line under wave-attack to advance not more than about
half its former prograded width. The last precludes all possibility of a
movement of uplift on a fairly large scale, certainly not more than 100 ft.

Adkin. — The Horoivhenua Coastal Plain.

115

c.

Fig. 2. — Diagrammatic sections showing the evolution of the Ohau Valley
in its fan about a mile below the fan's apex.

a. Coastal-plain sandstone resting on the south-west slope of the Ohau fan.

6. The cutting of the shallow valleys of the " Kimberley Road" Stream

and the former Kuku Stream ; and the building of flood-plains

(horizontal shading).

The invasion of the Kuku Valley by the " Kimberley Road " Stream,

and the removal of the right bank of the latter's former valley by

the Ohau River flowing in its " north-west " course.

Diversion of the Ohau River (at a point up-stream) into the original

Kuku Valley, and its enlargement by the river.
The alluviation (black dots) of the valley of the Ohau (at this point) by

gravels, &c., derived from the incision of the " valley plain."
The effect of lateral corrasion by the Ohau River after the alluviation.

(Terrace or flood-plain gravels shown as open dots.)
Final deepening and terracing of Ohau Valley, resulting in its present
form. In the high terrace-face on the left a layer of sandstone lies
between the upper gravels (black dots) and the surface of the
Ohau fan.

/•

9

116 Transactions.

How, then, can Cotton's alternative explanation of a coastal plain
followed by " the remaining events .... the same as those outlined
in the previous explanation " be possible 'i Obviously it could not. The
secular subsidence would carry the " coastal plain of subaqueous sands,"
along with the old land-surfaces mentioned above, far below the present
surface, and it woiild be hidden either by continuous river-gravels or by
blown sand, and the lowland would approximate to that suggested by
Cotton in his first explanation. This, I think, disposes of the alternative
explanation.

Since the gravel fans of the larger rivers are below and not upon the
sandstone formation, the prograding of Cotton's strand-plain had to rely,
in face of subsidence, on the supply of sand and the detritus of minor
streams. But proof has been given above that the river-fans were built
not on a subsiding maritime area, but on a stationary inland surface.
Cotton's principal explanation is thus as untenable as the alternative one.
If, however, these difficulties can be explained away, further evidence is
furnished by the texture and structure of the sandstone formation.

The variation in the composition of the sandstone formation in a north-
east and south-west direction — viz., from friable pumiceous sand north of
Tokomaru to relatively compact greywacke-derived quartzose sand south
of that locality — cannot be explained by the aeolian hypothesis ; but if the
variable material is regarded as shallow-water deposits laid down along a
shelving coast to form a potential coastal plain no difficulty presents itself.
Similarly, by the aeolian theory, the sand carried farthest inland would
be the finest, or at least as fine as that at the source of supply — i.e., along
the prograding shore-line. But this is an inversion of the actual facts.
All along the coastal lowland, and in the quartzose areas more especially,
the sandstone is coarsest along the inner margin, grading to a finer texture
towards the present coast-line — facts strongly supporting the marine-
deposition theory and quite adverse to the aeolian.

Perhaps the most striking features of the sandstone formation are the
cross-bedding and delicate lamination. The dunes of blown sand that lie
nearer the present coast-line do not exhibit a similar structure, and it is
in this respect that the two formations are in such strong contrast, though
the compact texture of the one and the looseness of the other is equally
striking. This diversity of structure under similar, if not identical, cUmatic
and geographical conditions points to dissimilar origins for the sandstone
and the blown sand : the former must thus be a subaqueous deposit.

I agree with Cotton that pseudo -stratification is sometimes present in
the sandstone ; but there is also quite frequently a well-defined true strati-
fication. Alternations of thin beds of loam or clay interstratified with
thicker ones of sandstone are quite common. Occasionally a sandstone
stratum is intersected by two sets of joints, and breaks up into cubical
blocks while in situ, while the layers above and below are compact. In
these and other ways the presence of true stratification is revealed, and I
contend that the structure of the sandstone formation adds to the weight
of evidence of its having originated as a marginal marine deposit uplifted
to form a young coastal plain.

I have but little hesitation in affirming that the peneplanation of dunes
of blown sand* is a physical impossibility ; such, in any case, is the verdict

* C. A. Cotton, loc. cit. (1918), p. 216.

Adkin. — The H orowhenua Coastal Plain.

117

in this district. Bordering the present Horowhenua coast-line, a belt of
dimes, the aeolian origin of which has never been questioned, covers a strip
of country from three to six miles in width. The dunes along the inner
margin of the belt are the oldest, and these have reached a state of very
considerable stability. These old dunes are generally covered with a thick
la'yer of humus derived from the growth and decay of manuka and other
vegetation, and are also fixed by a turf of natives grasses. In spite of
these characteristics no trace of a drainage-system is being or has been
incised upon them. Rain descending upon the dimes sinks immediately
into their substance, to the complete exclusion of any run-off whatever.
The great difference between the dunes and the sandstone is that in the
one a cementing medium is entirely lacking — hence their great porosity
and immunity from dissection by surface waters ; whereas in the other
the hydration of certain ferrous constituents, together with the presence
of colloidal matter,* has cemented the sand-grains into a fairly compact
and somewhat impervious mass — sufficient, indeed, to permit of dissection
by stream-action.

The River -terraces.

In support of his theory of occasional phases of retrogradation of the
shore-line of a strand-plain. Cotton claims that, in addition to the line of
cliffs cut by the sea in the toe of the plain, terraces or valley-in-valley forms
resulted, and furnish evidence of the retrogradation. The only true terraces

Fig. 3. — Generalized diagrammatic section of the Ohau fan. showing

actual form of terraces.

of the Horowhenua lowland are those that fringe the sides of the trench-
like valleys cut in the large gravel fans. It can be shown by two lines of
evidence that the existing terraces do not furnish evidence of coastal retro-
gradation : (1.) If, as Cotton himself points out, the rivers rebuilt their
fans during a second (or some later) period of progradation, they must have
filled and obliterated the terraces of the trenches incised during the preceding

* E. C. Barton, The Work of Colloids in Sandbank and Delta Formation, Geog.
Journ., vol. 51, pp. 100-15, 1918.

118

Transactions.

period of retrogradation. Thus the present terraced trenches of the fan-
building rivers cannot be relics of the retrogradational phase, and must
therefore be due to some other cause and of a later date. (2.) The profile of the
existing terraces is not such as would have resulted from shore-recession.

Fig. 4. — Diagrammatic section of a river-fan, showing form of
terraces developed during a period of retrogradation
following the normal progradation of the shore-line
by a copious supply of waste.

This is clearly shown by a comparison of fig. 3 and fig. 4 ; the former shows
the form and arrangement of the terraces of the Ohau Valley, and the latter,
terraces developed in a fan truncated and trenched as a result of retro-
gradation of the shore-line by sea erosion.

Aet. XVI.-

-Ceina, an Aberrant Genus of the Amphvpodan Family
Talitridae.

By Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., F.L.S., Hector Memorial Medal-
list, Hon. Member Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Professor of Biologv, Canterbury
College, N.Z.

[Bead before the Philosopfiical Institute of Canterbury, 18th December, 1918 ; received by
Editor, 30th December, 1918 ; issued separately, 26th May, 1919.]

The genus Ceina was established in 1893 by Delia Valle for the single
species C. egregia (Chilton), which had been described in 1883 under the
genus Nicea Nicolet, a genus now considered to be identical with Hijale
H. Rathke. The species was placed under Nicea because it appeared in
many respects to come near to Nicea rubra G. M. Thomson, N. fimbriata
G. M. Thomson, and other species then referred to Nicea ; but it was
pointed out at the time that it differed in several important characters,
and some points in the original description were left more or less
doubtful. Stebbing in 1888 (p. 1712) mentioned the species, stating that
its generic position was not quite free from doubt. In establishing the new

Chilton. — Ceina, an Aberrant Genus of the Talitrulu 11.9

genus Ceina, Delia Valle gave a brief description which may be translated
as follows : " Upper antennae a little longer than the peduncle of the lower.
Second gnathopods of male chelate. Third uropods represented by peduncle
without rami. Telson divided." He pointed out that the species was
deserving of further investigation, particularly with regard to both pairs of
maxillae and to the terminal uropods. In this paper I endeavour to supply
the information that Delia Valle considered was necessary, and I regret that
various circumstances have prevented its being supplied earlier.

In 1906 (p. 554), in his revision of the Amphipoda for Das Tier-
reich, Stebbing described the genus as follows : " Antenna 1 longer than
peduncle of antenna 2. Maxillipeds, finger of palp broad, subtriangular.
Gnathopod 1 in male and female and gnathopod 2 in female subchelate,
small. Gnathopod 2 in male much larger, subchelate or (in maturity)
chelate. Uropod 3 tubercular, without rami. Telson partially cleft."

There are also one or two points not mentioned in this description
owing to their having been previously undescribed which are worthy of
being included in the generic description. Thus, in the mandibles the
usual molar tubercle is quite absent, and appears to be represented or
replaced by a peculiar lappet on the inner surface directed backwards
towards the base of the appendage. In the first maxilla the palp is absent
or very minute, as in most of the species of Orchestia ; the outer lobe is of
normal structure, but the inner lobe is very small, barely half as long as
the outer, and without the usual two plumose setae. It thus difiers from
the character of this maxilla as laid down by Stebbing for the family
Talitridae, where he says " maxilla 1, inner plate slender, tipped with 2
plumose setae " ; Sars (1895, p. 21) also gives this as one of the characters
of the family, and the diagnosis of the family will therefore need to be
slightly modified to include the genus Ceina. The second maxilla and the
maxillipeds are fairly normal ; but the large chelate second gnathopod of
the male is a distinctive feature, and the terminal uropods are peculiar,
being represented only by a short tubercle, which probably is the modified
peduncle without rami. In this last character Ceina differs markedly from
Hyale and approaches the allied genus Chiltonia, where the terminal uropods
are represented by a single joint.

The generic diagnosis and the synonymy of the species may be given as
follows : —

Ceina Delia Valle.

Ceina Delia Valle, 1893, p. 530 ; Stebbing, 1899, p. 397, and 1906.
p. 554.

The genus may j)erhaps be defined as follows : Mandible without defi-
nite molar tubercle. First maxilla with palp absent or vestigial, inner lobe
small and without jjluraose setae. First gnathopoda small and subchelate
in both sexes ; second gnathopoda large and chelate in the male, subchelate
in the female. Third uropoda represented by a small rounded lobe. Telson
formed of a thick plate, partially cleft.

It is not easy to assign a definite position to this genus among the allied
genera of the family. In many of the characters it more or less resembles
Hyale, but it distinctly difl^ers from this genus in the mandibles, first
maxillae, the vestigial third uropoda, and the telson. In the last points
it shows some approach to the genus Chiltonia, but the special character
of the mandibles and of the inner lobe of the first maxillae are different
from anything known to me among other Talitridae ; the vestigial nature

120

Transactions.

of the palp of the first maxilla is, of course, a character possessed by many
of the species of Orchestia, Talorchestia, &c. The large chelate second
gnathopod in the male is strikingly different from that of any of the
species of Hyale or allied genera, but is found only in the male, the second
gnathopod of the female being of the usual subchelate character.

Ceina egregia (Chilton). (Figs 1 to 25.)

Nicea egregia Chilton, 1883, p. 77, pi. 2, fig. 2 a-l. Ceina egregia
Delia Valle, 1893, p. 530, pi. 58, figs. 14-21. Ceina egregia Steb-
bing, 1906, p. 554.

As there is only one species of the genus at present known, it is impos-
sible to give a separate specific diagnosis. A detailed description of the
animal and of the different appendages is given below.

Colour usually dark red, sometimes greenish or bluish ; appendages and
extremity of bocly often white, or partly white and partly red.

Length of either sex about 6 mm. or 7 mm.

Localities : Cape Maria van Diemen (T. B. Smith) ; Tauranga (W. R. B.
Oliver) ; Lyttelton (C. Chilton) ; Shag Point, Otago (W. R. B. Oliver).

^ '({[/■

Fig. 1. — Ceina egregia ; side view of malt

Remarks. — The animal is found at the roots of kelp and on various sea-
weeds, generally about low-tide mark, and when disturbed remains still or
moves only slightly. By its shape and colour it is often difficult to detect
as it lies partially coiled up on the seaweed. The dark colour does not
usually cover the whole body, and its outline being different from that
of the body itself the concealment of the animal is thus made more
perfect.

The colour of different specimens varies considerably, and shows many
irregularities, all tending, however, to conceal the animal. Of one female
specimen from Lyttelton, collected 16th January, 1906, I have the following
note as to its colour : " Colour greenish, shading into pink, patchy, with
darker dots on legs, &c. ; antennae with bases white, and then with

Chilton. — Ceina, an Aberrant Genus of the Talitridae.

121

alternate bands of purplish pink and white."* Tliis specimen was found
among corallines, and the general appearance of the animal caiised by its
dorsal crest, the way in which it coiled itself up, and by its colour, was very
suggestive of a piece of coralline.

The peraeon and pleon are strongly compressed dorsally and carinate,
the first segment of the peraeon forming a rounded crest projecting forwards
over the posterior part of the head. Comparison of a number of specimens
shows that the amount of carination is approximately the same in both
sexes, though in the original description it was stated that the female
was more strongly carinated than the male. The carination is naturally
less marked in immature specimens.

The upper surface of the head is turned slightly upwards at the base
of the upper antenna.

Fig. 2. — Ceina egregia ; dorsal view of female.

The eyes are round and of moderate size, containing numerous ocelli ;
they are red in colour, and project a little beyond the surface of the head
as a small convex lobe on each side.

The various appendages may be described as follows : —

The upper antenna (fig. 3) is rather longer than the peduncle of the
lower ; the first joint of the peduncle is longer than the second, and is
produced at the lower distal angle into a subacute tooth ; the third joint
is slightly shorter than the second. The fiagellum is as long as the peduncle,
and consists of about 9 joints, all of which bear numerous simple
■' olfactory " setae in addition to a few ordinary acute setiiles. In one
ovigerous female examined the flagellum contained only 7 joints.

The second antenna (fig. 4) has the last joint of the peduncle rather
longer than the penultimate ; the flagellum is rather stout, longer than
the peduncle, and containing about 13 segments, each with tufts of short

* Tliis banding of the antennae with different colours is very common in the
Amphipoda, and its effect is to disguise the length of the antennae as the animal lies
against seaweed, rock, &c., and thus render it less conspicuous.

122

Transactions.

setules at the distal end. The relative lengths of the joints of the peduncle
are not constant ; the last two joints are sometimes more nearly equal,
especially in the male, than is shown in fig. 4, which is taken from a female
specimen.

Fig. 3. — Ceina egregia ; first antenna.

Fig. 4. — Ceina egregia ; second antenna, from a female specimen.

Fig. 5. — Ceina egregia ; upper lip.

The upper lip (fig. 5) is broader than long, its margin evenly rounded
and fringed with the usual short setae.

The mandibles present several characters of importance. They are
somewhat slender, curved in the usual way so as to be strongly convex
on the outer side, and on this surface they bear a small rounded tubercle
about half-way between the base and the apex (see figs. 7 and 9). At
the base a strong process projects inwards on the inner or concave surface.

Fig. 6. — Ceina egregia ; right mandible, seen from inner side.
Fig. 7. — Ceina egregia ; right mandible, seen partly from outer side ;
molar lappet shrivelled.

There is no trace of a molar tubercle of the usual type, the animal thus
differing from the description laid down by Sars for the Orchestidae
(1895, p. 21), in which he says " molar expansion large and thick." In
place of the molar tubercle there is a slender lobe or lappet which arises
about the middle of the inner concave surface of the mandible, and is bent

CHii/rox. — Ceina. (in Aberrant Genus of the Talit ridae .

123

back towards the base, reaching to the basal process already referred to ;
the surface of the lappet is finely striated, as if covered with very minute
setae, but these are extremely small and delicate, and the whole surface
of the lappets seems to be only thinly chitinous and delicate ; in one
specimen it has shrivelled into an irregular shape in the process of
mounting. The remainder of the mandible is strongly chitinous and
firm. The cutting-edge of the mandible, as usual, differs on the two sides.
On the left side (figs. 8 and 9) the outer cutting-edge is convex on the
outer side, concave within, and formed of about 6 or 7 strong sharp teeth.
The accessory masticatory lobe is somewhat similar in general appearance,
and bears 4 or 5 sharp teeth. From the base of this arises a very stout
spine or process with 4 teeth on its concave side. The spine row consists
of 3 stout spines with their distal portions scabrous. In the right
mandible (figs. 6 and 7) the outer cutting-edge is similar to that on the

8

Fig. 8. — Ceina egregla ; left mandible, from inner side.
Fig. 9. — Ceina egregia ; left mandible, from outer side.

left, and is composed of 5 or 6 teeth, but the accessory masticatory lobe
appears to be absent or represented only by a stout bent spine or process
which has a tooth on its outer margin about half-way between the base and
apex. The spine row in this mandible contains only 2 scabrous spines.

The lower lip (fig. 10) agrees in shape with that of species of Hyale and
allied genera, the two lobes bearing numerous setae on the central part of
their convex extremity, and a few minute setae on the surface.

The first maxilla (fig. 11) has the outer lobe extremely strong and
highly chitinized, especially on the outer side and towards the distal end.
At its extremity it bears a number of stout spines of the usual character,
the inner ones of which are more denticulated on their inner margins than
the outer spines are. These all lie closely crowded together, so that it is
difficult to count them accurately, but there appear to be 8 or 9 ; Stebbing
gives the possession of 9 apical spines as one of the characters of the family
Talitridae. The inner lobe differs markedly from the normal character

124

Transactions.

found in this family. It is small, slender, and delicate, reaching only
about half-way along the inner margin of the outer lobe, and there is no
sign of the usual two plumose setae, the rounded extremity bearing only
a few very fine minute setae. The palp is either absent altogether or
is represented only by a small mark on the outer convex margin ; but
though this corresponds in position and shape with the minute palp
found in many species of Orchestia, it does not project beyond the margin
of the outer lobe, and is apparently fused with it.

The second maxilla (fig. 12) is of normal shape, being formed of 2
subequal delicate lobes, each with the usual terminal fringe of long setae ;
a few finer setae are found on the inner margin of the inner lobe and the
outer margin of the outer lobe ; there is no sign of the special plumose
seta bounding the apical fringe of spines of the inner margin which is
mentioned by Stebbing in his definition of the family Talitridae.

10

0i

i

Fig. 10. — Ceina egregia ; lower lip.
Fig. 11. — Ceina egregia ; first maxilla.
Fig. 12. — Ceina egregia ; second maxilla.

The maxillipeds (fig. 13) present one or two special characters, but on
the whole are similar to those of species of Hyale. The outer and inner
lobes are of nearly the same length, the inner lobe bearing at its truncate
extremity 2 or 3 short blunt teeth with 1 or 2 longer dentate spines ; the
inner margin of the lobe is free from setae except near the distal end. The
outer lobe is slightly broader than the inner, the outer margin being
convex, and its inner margin supplied with numerous spinules. The merus,
or first joint of the palp, has its outer angle much produced so as to reach
fully as far as the end of the carpus ; its inner distal margin is much
hollowed for the reception of the carpus, which extends farther towards
its base on the inner tlian on the outer side. The carpus and propod are
subequal and somewhat oval in shape, with the inner margins strongly
convex and bearing a fringe of long spines ; the propod in addition has
a distinct transverse row of long spines near its distal end. The dactyl

Chilton. — Ceina, nn Aherrant Genus of the TaUtridae.

125

is large and well developed, somewhat triangular in shape, strongly curved,
and slightly twisted so that its outer or lower surface is convex. It is
comparatively free from setae, but its surface shows numerous rows of
very minute striations, possibly caused by rows of very minute setules.

I have not noticed any differences between the mouth-parts of male
and female specimens such as occur in Hyale camptonyx (Heller), H. grenfelli
Chilton, and possibly in some other species. The differences between the
male and the female appear to be confined to the second gnathopoda.

The first gnathopod of the male (fig. 14) is of normal shape, its side
plate rectangular with the longer angles rounded, the carpus slightly
shorter than the propod, triangular, its hind-margin fringed with stout

Fig. 13. — Ceina egregia ; maxilliiie(is.

Fig. 14. — Ceina egregia ; first gnatliopod of male.

Fig. 15. — Ceina egregia ; second gnathopod of male.

setae ; the propod oval, palm rather oblique, straight or slightly curved,
defined- by a stout spinule with subapical cilium. The palm is fringed
with a row of simple setae, and the hind-margin and surface of the joint
near the hind-margin bear numerous fairly stout setae, all serrate or
pectinate.

The second gnathopod in the male (fig. 15) is very large and very
different from that of any of the species of Hyale known to me. The side
plate is rectangular, rather deej)er than broad, with margins entire and
free from setae ; the branchia is long and narrow. The basis is long and
slender, broadening only slightly distally ; its anterior margin is grooved
and produced into a small lobe at the distal end ; the ischium is short,
with the anterior outer margin produced into a rounded lobe ; the merus

126

Transactions.

about as long as the ischium, and, like the two preceding joints, free from
setae ; the propod, with which the carpus is coalesced, is very large, fully
as long as the rest of the limb, and has the posterior distal angle produced
so as to form with the very strong finger a powerful chelate appendage :
the anterior margin is strongly convex, the posterior is straight or slightly
sinuous and bears a number of setae, especially towards the distal end,
these setae being less numerous in older specimens ; the palm projects
strongly and has a blunt tooth towards the end ; the finger bears along
its inner margin a regular row of long setae, and near the extremity a tuft
containing a considerable number of setae. The shape of the propod and
finger will be best seen from the figure, which is taken from a fairly well
developed male. In one specimen examined, apparently older, the palm
is deeply concave, the fixed finger is longer and more joroduced, the tooth
on the inner margin is blunter and nearer the apex, the setae both on the
fixed finger and the dactyl are less conspicuous.

Fig. 16. — Ceina egregin ; second gnathopod of iminature male.
Fig. 17. — Ceina egregia ; first gnathopod of female.

In the immature males the second gnathopod (fig. 16) is of much more
normal shape, and in quite young forms is probably the same as in the
female. The figure shows one in which the carpus can still be distinguished
as a separate joint ; it is short and triangular, fairly well marked oft" from
the propod on the anterior side, and produced posteriorly into a small lobe
lying between the merus and propod, and appears to be more or less fused
with the latter ; its presence, however, is indicated even on the posterior
margin by a small number of setae on the posterior margin. The propod
is broader than in the fully developed specimens, and is subchelate, having
the palm transverse, slightly convex, defined by a fairly stout acute tooth
or spinule. The hind-margin and the palm bear numerous long setae,

Chiltox. — Ceina, an Abernnif (rcnus of the Talifridde.

127

and there are a few scattered on the .surface of the joint ; tlie concave
margin of the dactyl bears a row of small setae, but the tuft near the apex
has not yet been developed.

The first gnathopod of the female (fig. 17) shows the same general shape
as that of the male, but appears to be somewhat longer and more slender ;
the basal joint is long, slender, somewhat curved ; ischium and merus
•of about equal length, these three joints practically free from setae ; carpus
is shorter than the propod, triangular, and with 5 or 6 spines on its
posterior margin ; the propod oblong rather than oval, palm slightly
oblique, fringed with fine spinules and bounded by a stout spine ; numerous
other spinules fringe the hind-margin, and others are situated on the surface
near the margin ; the finger is strong and much curved.

Fig. 18. — Ceina eyregia ; second gnatliopocl of female.

The second gnathopod of the female (fig. 18) is similar in general
appearance to the first, but is somewhat larger and has the carpus slightly
shorter in proportion to the propod ; the branchia is oval in shape, some-
what narrow and nearly as long as the basal joint ; the brood plate is oval,
as long as the basal joint, and has its margin fringed in the usual way with
long slender setae.

The peraeopoda are very nearly subequal in length, the first (tig. 19)
and second being only slightly shorter than the following ; all are strongly
cJiitinous and comparatively free from setae. They are all fairly normal
in shape, and only one or two points require special notice. The basal
joint of the third (fig. 20) is moderately produced posteriorly but narrows
a little below ; its margin is free from setae or serrations, but shows short
transverse lines, giving it a crinkled appearance. In the fourth peraeopod
(fig. 21) the expansion of the basal joint is rather greater proximally.

128

Transactions.

Fig. 19. — Ceina egregia ; iirst i^craeopod.
Fig. 20. — Ceina egregia ; third peraeopod.
Fig. 21. — Ceina egregia ; fourth peraeopod.
Fig. 22. — Ceina egregia ; fifth peraeopod.

Chilton. — Ceina, an Aberrant Genus of the TfiUtridae.

129

but distally it narrows a little more than in the third ; in the fiftli (fig. 22)
the expansion is considerably broader than in the fourth, and the posterior
margin is regularly and strongly convex. In all the peraeopoda the propod
is considerably longer than the carpus, and bears a few small setae on the
inner margin at the base of the finger. The finger is stout, strongly curved,
and the spinule on its inner margin is of moderate thickness.

The segments of the pleon (fig. 23) have the downward expansions rather
narrow, the anterior angle mucli rounded off, the posterior nearly rect-
angular but rounded ; the posterior margin with a few shallow crenations
and a very minute setule in each depression.

The uropoda are all short and somewhat stout (fig. 24). In the first
the peduncle is longer than the rami and bears a spinule on its u])per margin
at the end ; the rami are subequal, and both bear lateral as well as apical
setules. The second uropod is similar in shape but has the peduncle only
as long as the rami ; these reach as far back as those of the first uropod.

Fig. 23. — Ceina egregia ; pleon segment 3, lower portion.
Fig. 24. — Ceina egregia ; urns and uropoda, side view.
Fig. 25. — -Ceina egregia ; telso2i from above, with terminal segment and
third uropoda.

The third uro})od (figs. 24 and 25) is represented only by a small semi-
circular lobe with entire margins attached to the sixth segment of the
pleon and representing either the peduncle or the peduncle and rami fused.

The telson (fig. 25) is convex dorsally, and when viewed from above
shows as a semicircular plate with entire margins without setae and cleft
for about one-third of its length. Viewed laterally the plate appears to be
fairly thick and strongly curved so as to be concave below.

The figures, which add so much to the value of this paper, have
been prepared by Miss E. M. Herriott, M.A., Assistant in the Biological
Laboratory of Canterbury College. They all refer to Ceina egregia, and
unless otherwise stated are drawn from a male specimen.

Eeferences.

Chilton, C, 1883. Further Additions to our Knowledge of the New Zealand Crustacea,

Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 15, pp. 09-86, pi. 1-3.
Della Valle, a., 1893. Gammarini del Golfo Napoli, Fauna und Flora des Golfes von

Neajnl, Monographie 20.
Saes, G. 0., 1895. An Account of the Crustacea of Norivay : I, Amphipoda.
Stebbing, T. R. R., 1888. Report on the " Challenger " AmjMpoda.
1899. Amphipoda from the Copenhagen Museum and other Sources, Part 2,

Trans. Linn. Sac. Zool, vol. 7, pp. 395-432, pi. 30-35.
— — ■ 1906. Amphipoda ; I, Gammaridea, Das Tierreich, Lieferung 21.

5 — Trans.

130 Transactions.

Art. XVII. — New Species of Mollusca, froyn various Dredgings taken

off the Coast of New Zealand, the Snares Islands, and the Bounty

Islands.

By Miss M. K. Mestayer.

Communicated by E. L. Mestayer.

[i?effl(Z before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 24th July, 1918 ; received by Editors,
30th August, 1918 ; issued separately, 26th May, 1919.]

Plate VIII.

The species described or referred to in the following paper were, with one
exception, obtained from dredgings taken by Captain Bollons, of the s.s.
" Hinemoa," in various parts of the Hauraki Gulf, off the North Cape,
and off the Bounty and Snares Islands. Scissurella regia and DiscoheUx
hedlei/i, of which the dimensions are for the first time given, are from
dredgings off the Three Kings Islands and the North Cape.

I wish to acknowledge my great indebtedness to Mr. C. Hedley,
Dr. J. A. Thomson, and the late Mr. H. Suter for their unfailing kindness
and help ; and to Miss J. K. Allan for the trouble she has taken over the
drawings from which the figures are prepared.

Family SCISSURELLIDAE.

Scissurella regia Mestayer.

I take this opportunity of correcting an oversight in connection with
my paper in vol. 48 of the Transactions.* In the description of Scissurella
regia on page 124 the measurements of the holotype were accidentally
omitted. They are as follows: Height, 2 mm.; major diameter, 2'5mm. ;
minor diameter, 2 mm.

At the same time I record the finding of two imperfect specimens — one
in a dredging taken by the " Nora Niven," sixty miles east of Lyttelton,
in 100 fathoms, and the other in a dredging in Pickersgill Harbour, Dusky
Sound. A wider range is indicated for this species than at first supposed.

Schismope subantarctica Hedley.

This species occurs at Lyall Bay, Wellington, N.Z. It was described by
Hedleyf from the Macquarie Islands. I found it also in a dredging off the
Snares Islands in 50 fathoms.

Family LIOTIIDAE Gray.

Genus Liotia Gray, 1847.
Liotia suteri n. sp. (Plate VIII, figs. 1-.3.)

Bounty Islands ; 70 fathoms.

Shell small, somewhat discoidal. Whorls 3, compressed, with a rather
broad peripheral keel, which gives a serrated appearance to the edge of the
upper surface. Spire flat. Profoconch of one minute flat whorl. Suture

* M. K. Mestayer, Preliminary List of Mollusca from Dredgings taken off the
Northern Coast of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 122-28, pi. xii, 1916.

t C. Hedley, Australasian Antarctic E.vpedition, vol. 4, pt 1, p. 36, pi. v, figs. 54, 55,
1916.

Mestayer. — New Species of Mollusca. 131

distinct, serrated, bordered below by a narrow groove and a nodulous rib.
Body- whorl apparently smooth, but in a good light and under a strong
pocket-lens very fine hair-like radial lines are to be seen. Upper and
under surfaces convex. Aperture circular, with a heavy double varix, bear-
ing four deep pits. In the holotyj^e the aperture is closed by a dark-brown
raised spiral disc, covered with fine radial threads, which may perhaps be
the operculum, though it has somewhat the appearance of a small polyzoan.
ZJmhilicus deep, moderately open, revealing all the whorls ; margined by a
rather broad radially ribbed groove. Colour light-cream ; the paratype is
slightly browner.

Measurements. — Major diameter, 3 mm. ; minor diameter, 2 mm. ; thick-
ness, 1-5 mm.

Material. — The holotype and one paratype (juvenile).

Remarks. — Mr. Suter's comment on it was, " Liotia n. sp. distinct from
Liotia serrata Suter," the type of which is in his collection. Liotia suteri
slightly resembles two species from the Philippines — (1) Liotia discoidea
(Reeve),* in its depressed form and peripheral keels, and (2) Liotia cre)iata
(Kiener),f in its heavily variced aperture and smooth base. It differs from
Liotia crenata (Kiener) in that the whorls only show one peripheral keel
above the suture, and from Liotia discoidea (Reeve) in having a smooth
base and much more heavily variced aperture. It seems to be a rather
rare species, as I have had a considerable amount of material dredged at
various stations off the Bounty Islands, and these are the only specimens
obtained. Both holotype and paratype are a good deal water-worn, especi-
ally the latter, which is not quite perfect. Both specimens are in my
collection.

Family ORBITESTELLIDAE Iredale.

Orbitestella hinemoa n. sp. (Plate VIII, figs. 7-9.)

Snares Islands ; 50 fathoms.

Shell minute, translucent, thin yet strong, discoidal. Whorls 3, sharply
angled : periphery vertical with a strong central keel nearly one-third its
width. Protoconch minute, one whorl. Spire only very slightly raised on
the convex surface. Base concave. Sculpture, one strong peripheral keel,
and faint traces of a raised spiral thread near the suture ; many fine raised
radials extend from the suture into the widely open umbilicus. Aperture
quadrate. Outer lip thin, sharp, wavy. Colour white.

Measurements. — Holotype : Diameter, 1 mm. ; thickness, ^ mm.

Material. — The holotype and forty-one paratypes from the type locality.
The holotype is in the Dominion Museum.

Remarks. — There is a good deal of variation in the distinctness of the
sculpture ; on the holotype the radial threads are indistinct, but they are
very distinct on a paratype, which is placed with it on that account. The
species owes its specific name to the ship from which the dredging was
taken. Mr. Hedley says it is allied to Orhitestella hastowi (Gatlifl"), the type
of this genus ; unfortunately, 1 have been unable to see either the figures
or description of Gatliff's species, so am unal^le to say how it differs from
0. hinemoa. The sculpture is so fine that though the figures (7-9) show it
quite correctly, yet a moderately high power on the microscope is required
to bring it out.

* Man. Conch. (1) x, p. 109, pi. 36, fig. 3.

t Man. Conch. (I) x, p. Ill, pi. 36, figs. 12, 13.

5*

132 Transactions.

As the Proceedings 0/ the Malacological Society of London are not always
readily accessible in New Zealand, I append Iredale's definition of this
genus : —

" Orhitestella gen. nov.

" I propose this name, and designate as type Cyclostrema bastowi Gatliff
{Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic. (n.s.), vol. xix, 1906, p. 3, pi. ii, figs. 8-10). I also
indicate it as representative of a new family Orbitestellidae, which is
composed of a series of minute marine molluscs with the following
characters : Shell thin, pellucid, discoidal, dextral, of few whorls and of
peculiar sculpture ; widely umbilicate, columella vertical, aperture never
variced, irregular in shape, edges thin.

" I had hoped to describe the group, giving figures, but at present this
is impossible. I have species from various parts of New Zealand, the Ker-
madecs, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Sydney Har-
bour (New South Wales), north coast of Tasmania, and Port Lincoln (South
Australia) — in fact, every austral locality from which I have received a
parcel of fine shell sand or fine dredgings. Commonly live shells have been
secured when live sand was received. All the species are very minute, and
I have about a dozen distinct species, divisible into two groups, and I hope
later to thoroughly elaborate the family with good figures."*

Family AECHITECTONICIDAE.
Discohelix hedleyi Mestayer.

With regard to this species I regret that, as in the case of Scissurella
regia, in my paper previously referred to the measurements of the holotype
were accidentally omitted. They are : Height, 0-5 mm. ; diameter, 1 mm.

Family EPITONIIDAE.
Crossea cuvieriana n. sp. (Plate VIII, fig. 10.)

Off Cuvier Island, Hauraki Gulf, N.Z. ; 38-40 fathoms.

Shell small, turbinate, rather thin. Whorls 3, the last rather large,
convex. Protoconch small, smooth, glossy, about two whorls. Sculpture,
five spiral ribs, of which the upper two are stronger than the others ; all
are characterized by very fine close threads crossing them. Even under
a strong pocket-lens the tops of the spirals appear quite smooth, but a
3 in. objective on the microscope shows that the spirals are crossed by the
threads. The axial sculpture is formed by strong lamellae, somewhat
unevenly spaced, which become rather crowded on the base ; between
the suture and the two upper spirals the interstices are about four times
the width of the lamellae. The basal sculpture resembles Crossea
cancellata Ten. -Woods, but in that species the spirals are smooth.
Umbilicus very small. The umbilical rim is very strong and finely
crenulated like the spirals. Aperture vertical, circular, decidedly canalicu-
lated at the base. The outer lip is slightly channelled by the five spirals,
inner lip thin, sharp, only slightly reflexed towards the umbilical rim.
Colour white or very light brown ; dull surface. Individual specimens
vary somewhat in the density of the shell, the white specimens being
more translucent than the brown ones.

* T. Iredalb, More Molluscan Name-changes, Proc. Malac. Soc, vol. 12, part vi,
p. 327, 1917.

Mbstayer. — New Species of Mollusca. 133

Measurements. — Height, 3 mm. ; diameter, 3 mm.

Material. — Holot}'pe and six paratypes from the type locality ; one
from off the Bounty Islands, 70 fathoms ; and two from off the Hen and
Chickens Islands, Hauraki Gulf, 25-26 fathoms.

Rernarhs. — This species is allied to Crossea cancellata Ten. -Woods,* from
which it is readily distinguished by the five crenulated spirals. The
strength of the sculpture varies slightly in different individuals, and the
foregoing description is based on the white holotype and on a well-sculptured
paratype, which is placed with it in the Dominion Museum. Mr. C. Hedley
saw a juvenile specimen and informed me that he considered it a new
species, so I examined my various dredgings and obtained some much
larger specimens.

Family TURRITIDAE.

Leucosyrinx thomsoni n. sp. (Plate VIII, fig. 5.)

Oft' Hen and Chicken Islands, Hauraki Gulf, N.Z. ; 25-26 fathoms.

Shell small, fusiform, thin. Spire a little higher than the aperture.
Protoconch, two whorls, globular, white, smooth, dull. Whorls 5 (holo-
type 4), sharply shouldered, convex, contracting rapidly to the canal,
which is very short, open, and slightly reflexed to the left. Anal notch
very slight, near the rather deeply impressed suture. Sculpture, three
sharp spiral ribs on the periphery, and many fine sj)iral threads on the
base and canal. On the sloping shoulder between the suture and the
first spiral are two or three very fine spiral threads, which are, however,
almost obscured by the fine sharp axial threads which run slightly obliquely
from spire to base, and are somewhat irregularly spaced. Columella short
and smooth. Outer lip thin, channelled by the spiral ribs ; inner Up
merely a thin glaze on the columella and body-whorl. Colour white or
creamy. Operculum unknown. Anvtnal unknown.

Measurements. — Holotype: Height, 3 mm. ; diameter, 1-5 mm.

Material. — The holotype and fifteen paratypes from type locality ; and
from the Bount}' Islands, Cuvier Island, Auckland Islands, and Dusky
Sound, only one specimen from each. Thus it has a fairly wide range.

Remarks. — This species is rather variable in sculpture, but the three
strong spirals on the body-whorl, and the very short canal, are distinctive
characters. Some of the young paratypes from the type locality have
much stronger spirals ; and there is also slight variation in the axial
sculpture, some showing it more than others. The holotype is a young
specimen of only four whorls ; a paratype of five whorls which has been
used with it in the above description also shows a fine spiral thread
between the first and second ribs. Both these specimens are in the
Dominion Museum. The nearest ally of this species is the following one,
Leucosyrinx cuvierensis, which also occurs in the Hauraki Gulf.

The species is named in honour of Dr. J. A. Thomson, Director of the
Dominion Museum.

Leucosyrinx cuvierensis n. sp. (Plate VIII, fig. 4.)

Off Cuvier Island, Hauraki Gulf, N.Z. ; 38-40 fathoms.
Shell small, fusiform, fragile. Sjnre slightly shorter than the aperture
and canal. Protoconch, two whorls, rounded, smooth, dull. Whorls 3,

*H. SuTBR, Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca. p. 324, 1914.

134 Trafisacfions.

regularly increasing, shouldered, convex, contracting sharply to the canal.
Sculpture, on the body- whorl four spiral ribs ; only the upper two show
on the spire-whorls. Some specimens have an extra small spiral thread
between the main ribs ; on the holotype it is between the second and third
ribs. The axial sculpture consists of fine sharp nearly equidistant threads
from the apex to the basal rib, rendering the spirals nodulous. From the
basal rib only fine growth-lines show along the canal. The anal notch is
merely a curve on the sloping shoulder near the suture, and is easily
overlooked. Suture rather deeply impressed. Canal fairly long, widely
open, inclined to the left, with a very slight backward curve. Outer Up
sharp, convex : inner lip merely a thin glaze on the columella. Columella
short, vertical. Colour a dirty white. Operculum unknown. Animal
unknown.

Measurements. — ^Height, 4-5 mm. ; diameter, 2 mm.

Material. — The holotype and three paratypes from type locality ; fifteen
from oS Hen and Chickens Islands, Hauraki (julf ; and seven from five
miles W. ^ N. from Cuvier Island, Hauraki Gulf, 38 fathoms.

Remarks. — The sculpture is rather variable ; sometimes the spirals are
more prominent than on the holotype, and in some specimens the axials
are coarser and wider apart. In either case the four spirals are a coiistant
character, as even if the extra spirals are present they are only fine threads.
One or two of the paratypes at first sight resemble L. thomsoni, from
which they are easily distinguished by the fewer spirals and absence of
spiral sculpture on the base.

Mr. C. Hedley, who saw specimens of both species, said thev were
new species of the genus Leucosyrinx. They do not seem to be very
closely allied to any other New Zealand species, either Recent or fossil.

Veprecula cooperi n. sp. (Plate VIII, fig. 6.)

Off the Hen and Chickens Islands, Hauraki Gulf, N.Z. ; 25-30 fathoms.

Shell small, fragile, fusiform, slender, prickly. Spire pagodiform.
Whorls 5, plus a three-whorled embryonic apex, which is finely longitudinally
ribbed ; whorls convex, contracting rapidly. Sculpture, four sharp raised
spiral ribs, crossed by about twelve equally sharp raised axial ribs, which
disappear below the fourth spiral, and are interrupted above by the
broad anal faseiole. The intersection of the ribs is marked by a sharp
prickle ; between the raised ribs are deep oblong pits, the surface of which
is smooth and dull. The anal faseiole is crossed by fine cresceutic growth-
lines, and bordered on its outer edge by a narrow double thread. AvmI
slit nearly 1 mm. in length. Suture distinct, serrated by the lowest spiral.
Coming from inside the vertical columella and covering the base and canal
are about twelve fine equidistant spiral threads. Canal short, open, very
slightly recurved. Outer lip thin, sharp ; in the holotype it is slightly
thickened by the last axial rib ; the inner surface is deeply grooved by
the spirals, and less so by the axials. Colour uniform light biscuit-brown.
Operculum unknown. Animal unknown.

Measurements. — Holotype : Height, 5 mm. ; diameter, 2 mm.

Material. — Eighty-six from type locality, and forty-nine others from
the Hauraki Gulf and North Cape, at depths ranging from 26 to 73
fathoms,

Remarks. — So far as I can see at present, this species has no near ally
in the New Zealand molluscan fauna. Its nearest allv seems to be

Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. LI.

Plate VIII.

«!*•

# m^

%'

-t ■

f-^p^

<

2

^ ffm

^vV \

:i«»'

*PfWt^\

8

9

. «<it A

,..'.,.'^,,lM»''f-^

-.//

11

L./. A'. -l/Zf^/^ (id.

Figs. 1-3. — Lioti't suteri n. sp.
Fig. 4. — Leucosyrinx cuvierensis n. sp.
Fig. 5. — Leiicosyrinx thoinsuni n. .sp.
Fig. 6. — Veprecula cooperi n. .sp.

r,i>;' p ru.]

Figs. 7-9. — Orbitesldla hinetnoa n. sp.
Fig. 10. — Crossed cuvieriana n. sp.
Fig. 11. — Pecten nS. transenna Suter.

Mest_h-ei!.-.1V,, Species of M„ll„„„. ,35

more delicately sculptured" TlXTi^MjiiftTT''^''''}'''^^
canal, ,s also allied to this species ' (""'^''O-t which has a longer

direLd ;;:;"atutio\°"trit!' *^h„;:;:,: fi,a^.e 'a°"r-( i -'"^''''^"•^' -^°

&«tt »'«;..-, p;,, / pa!e83 liU ^r? " "''^ *", '^r'"' -f «■«"« "/ *.»
Ws advice it is so treated he're ' '* "" " *"" «""'^ ' *'"> '* '» <>"

Family PECTINIDAE.
Pecten aff. transenna Suter. (Plate VIII fig 11 )

;;""88i ^rik vr thSe e^-ts 'tV^H"-- "^^^^^^

Bollons off the North Cane I fo,n,d » I ?^ a dredging taken by Captai"
any I had so far seen. Xne W a o 'ttt*: Mr^S^f f *"^"^" ""'"^'=
and his note on it is ■ " Pecten «ff I o •^'^*'''' ^°^ ^^^« opinion,

the Snares.are evidently nftld^lt 'o^ 34^ ^ ^P^^-^r ^^^^"

lour specimen, a left valve, is perfect anTl «n. t ^""r '""f^ ^^'"•

It as representing my species " He llfn / ''!''^^ '"'^'^^^^ *^ take

of it. It IS on Dr; J^A Tiiom^ontrr^^"''*^ Py^blishmg a photograph
description of my specimen ^^;rKsLrSrthe'*"" *'^' '-'^ ^^"^^^^

i^ey^ m/.e small,^oundly o^2^ttC£l'^t ^
equal ears. Co?o«r light-cream ona oTe F 7^ f' "™ ^"^ ''"^^^ sub-
twelve primary radiaf nC i^w\l nos t:%r "t^^^^ ^°""^"' "^^^^
secondary riblets to twenty four ^1\T ■ f '"''^° ' increased by

more rudimentarv S these *^ ,"^"^8"i, with traces of two or three

concentric threads, wS fonn sniaT rouu?'? .''i '^^^* ''^^^^*>' ^-«*^d
Beak slightly anterior a 1 ttle r^ sed i *''^'''^'' "^^^ ^^^ ^"^dials.

distinctly marked off ro„i the 6^^ 't^Z""} iT'*^' ^^^ •^"^^"' "^^
Anterior end a little shorter convex ^ 1 ^ ''f '""^^^^ *^ *^« d^^^-
below the ear: ^.o.^.mr fj'neaX .'t '! \w^' 'f^^f' '^^^^^^ ^^^^^ted
ear; thence rapidly descend in ann. ^t^^' *° ,^^' ^^^^*^ "blet on the

mnge-line straight" S a mute 7" T ^f "^^ ^^^^'■^^■'''' ^^^^^ly convex,
creamy, shming,^gr;ov d by he adil >l ^.r^'^' *^^ ""^^«- ^-^^'•^-'-
visib^. ^.,1; ?Hghtly l^:.^^;^ :JL^--"*™ ^^--d« clearly

a r^tt tTodraTtht^"^^^^^^^ f - - a well .^^d groove (possibly

plane, the las' three or Tu^ concentr rthrd"!"' "^ ' "^^^ "^'^'^
the rest of the shell so tW ^^^f . i V^"^' ''""'^ ^<^ ^ «ligl^t angle to
its front edge. ' ^'* '* ^^^"^^ ^^^^^'^ ^« ^f ^t had a tmy frill along

Measurements. ~b mm. by 4 mm.

* Mem. Austral. Mus. No A r> -^qj « n.-

v.o««o«, ^ol. 12, pts. iv_v, 1513. 189-90, 1917.

136 Transact tons.

Art. XVIII. — Notes on the Autecology of certain Plants of the Peridotite
Belt, Nelson : Part I — Structure of some of the Plants (No. 2).*

By M. Winifred Betts, M.Sc,

Communicated by Professor Benham, F.K.S.

[Read before ike Otayu Institute, 10th December, 1918 ; received by Editor, 30ih
December, 1918 ; issued separately, 26th May, 1919.]

10. Rubus australis Forst.

Growth form. — " A tall climber, reaching the tops of the highest trees ;
stems stout, woody at the base ; branches slender, drooping, armed with
scattered recurved prickles. Leaves 3-5-foliolate or rarely pinnate, with
2 pairs of leaflets and a terminal one ; leaflets coriaceous, glabrous, very
variable in size and shape, 2-5 in. long, ovate-oblong or ovate-lanceolate
to linear-oblong or almost linear, acute or acuminate, truncate or cordate
at the base, sharply serrate ; petioles and midribs armed with recurved
prickles, "f

Anatomy.

Leaf. — -The upper epidermis consists of small cells, which are oval or
rectangular in transverse section. These cells have their walls somewhat
thickened, and there is a thick smooth cuticle. There are no stomates
on the upper surface.

The lower epidermis is formed of small more or less squarish cells.
These cells have their walls slightly thickened, and there is a cuticle, which
is not, however, as thick as on the upper face of the leaf. Stomates are
frequent on the lower surface. The guard-cells are small, and are at the
same level as the epidermal cells ; the stomates are protected by guard-
cell ridges.

Beneath the upper epidermis there is a hypoderma consisting of large
rectangular cells with thickened walls.

The chlorenchyma is dift'erentiated. The palisade tissue is composed
of 3 layers of thin-walled cells containing fairly large chloroplasts. The
2 outer layers are very compact, but there are air-spaces between the
cells of the inner layer. The spongy tissue consists of rather small,
irregular, thin-walled cells, which are loosely arranged.

The midrib is prominent. Above the xylem there is a group of large
cells with thickened lignified walls. The xylem contains vessels of large
diameter. Beneath the phloem there is a zone of sclerenchynia, in which
the cells are small and have thick walls and small cell-cavities. Below
this zone there are some large cells with thickened lignified walls. Above
the midrib the epidermal cells are much smaller, and a few of them are
produced into unicellular hairs, with thick walls which are not cutinized.
Above and below the midrib there is colleuchyma.

Stem. — The epidermis consists of very small dome-shaped cells with
their lateral and their external walls cutinized. The cuticle is uneven,
and is very thick.

* For No. 1 SCO Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 230-i:i 1918.

tT. F. Cheeseman, Manual of the New Zealand Flora, 19U0. (See No. 1 of these
Notes, loc. cit., p. 231.)

Betts. — Auteculoyii of FUnUs of F( ridotife Belt, Nelson. 137

The cortex consists of 6-9 layers of cells with thick walls. This tissue
is very compact. The endodermis is well marked ; it is composed of two
distinct zones ; adjoining the cortical cells there is a single layer of fairly
large cells containing starch. Then comes a ring, 1-2 cells wide, of large
rectangular cells with suberized walls.

The pericycle fibres form a wide band. The fibres are of small diameter,
and are closely packed. The walls are thick, and the lumen small.

The phloem forms a wide band of small-celled elements. The xylem
consists for the most part of vessels of large diameter, but there are also
wood-fibres. The medullary rays are 2-3 cells wide, and the cells have
lignified walls.

The pith is solid, and consists of round and polygonal cells, which vary
considerably in size. The walls are thickened, lignified, and pitted.

11. Viola Cunninghamii Hook. f.

Groivth-fortn . — A small tufted herb. It has a somewhat woody root-
stock, creeping below and tufted above. The leaves are glabrous, and are
tufted on the top of the rootstock, or on short branches springing from it ;
they are about h in. long, triangular-ovate, truncate at the base, obtuse
and obscurely crenate ; the petioles are i-lj in. long, and are occasionally
pubescent. The stipules are adnate to the base of the petiole.

Anatomy.

Leaf. — The upper epidermis consists of large oval cells with thin walls.
A thin cuticle is present. The lower epidermis is similar, except that the
cells are smaller. Stomates are found on both surfaces, but are more
numerous on the lower. The guard-cells are small, and at the same level
as the epidermal cells. There are no guard-cell ridges.

The chlorenchyma is differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of
2 rows of cells, the cells of the outer layer being deeper than those of the
inner. There are fairly large intercellular au'-spaces between the palisadic
cells. The spongy tissue consists of rounded or irregular cells fairly loosely
arranged, so that there are numerous intercellular air-spaces. All the
chlorenchymatous cells contain moderately large chloroplasts.

The vascular system of the leaf is not very well developed. In the
bundle there is only a small amount of lignified tissue, and there is a good
deal of parenchyma. The bundle is smTounded by a rather poorly defined
sheath of small, thin-walled, colourless parenchymatous cells.

Between the bundle-sheath and the lower epidermis, and below the
upper epidermis, there is some colourless, thin-walled, parenchymatous
tissue, which forms an aqueous tissue. There are only minute air-spaces
between these cells. Below the bundle the epidermal cells are smaller and
the cuticle is somewhat thicker.

Stem. — The epidermis consists of small oval or rectangular cells, which
have thin walls and a thin cuticle.

The cortex is composed of large, closely packed, thin-walled, more or
less rounded parenchymatous cells. There are very small intercellular
air-spaces. Many of the cortical cells contain small starch-grains, and a
few contain crystal aggregates (sphaero-crystals) of calcium oxalate.

The endodermis is well marked, and consists of large cells with thin
suberized walls.

The phloem forms a wide continuous band ; the sieve-tubes are of fairly
large diameter, and associated with them is parenchyma. The xyleni

138

Trangactions.

forms a band of tissue only slightly wider than the phloem. The vessels
are numerous and of large diameter, and their walls are not ver}- thick.
Separating the rows of vessels are wood-fibres.

The pith is solid, and consists of large thin-walled cells which are closely
packed together, so that there are only very small air-spaces at the corners
Near the xylem the pith-cells are smaller.

Fig. 1. — Hymenanthera dentata var. alpina. Entire young plant ( X h)

12. Hymenanthera dentata R. Br. var. alpina Kirk
Growth-form. — This plant is a low, much-branched, rigid shrub, 1-2 ft
high, with tortuous or zigzag interlacing branches ;
densely compacted, and end in stout spines
fascicled, thick and coriaceous, |— | in. long, linear-obovate, with entire or
irregularly lobed margins. The petioles are very short. A young plant is
illustrated in fig. 1.

the branches are
The leaves are alternate or

Betts. — Aufecolof/f/ of PJaiifs of Peridotite Belt, Xelsoti.

139

Anatomy.

Leaf (fig. 2). — The upper and the lower epidermis consist of large more
or less squarish cells with thin walls. There is a thick cuticle on both
surfaces. Stomates are found on both faces of the leaf. The guard-cells
are level with the u})per surface of the epidermal walls, but are below the
cuticle. The guard-cells have thickened walls, and the stoma is protected
by the guard-cell ridges.

The chlorenchyma is rather feebly differentiated. The palisade tissue
consists of 4-5 rows of oval cells with very slightly thickened cell-walls,
and containing a small number of large chloroplasts. The 2 outer layers of
palisadic tissue are compact, but the inner ones are not so closely arranged.
There is also palisade tissue on the lower surface of the leaf. Here it is
only 1-2 rows of cells. The spongy tissue consists of rather irregular
loosely arranged cells, so that there are large intercellular air-spaces. These
cells also contain large chloroplasts.

a-

Fig. 2. — Hymenanthera dentatu var. alpina. Transverse section of lamina
of leaf ( X 230). a, thick cuticle ; 6, palisade parenchyma ;
c, bundle-sheath ; d, xylem ; e, jihloem ; /, guard-cell i-idge.

The vascular bundle is of the usual dicotyledonous type ; the amount of
lignified tissue in the xylem is small. Surrounding the bundle is a sheath
of large thin-walled cells, which are practically devoid of chloroplasts.

Stem (fig. 3). — The cork forms a wide band, and consists of fairly large
cells with thickened walls. Then conies the phellogen of thin-walled
rectangular cells.

The cortex forms a layer of tissue 12-14 cells deep ; its cells are oval and
have thickened walls. There are numerous intercellular air-spaces, most
of which are, however, small. Drops of oil are found in the cortical cells.

The pericycle fibres form small isolated groups. The cells are small
and have very thick walls, so that the cell-cavities are almost obliterated.

140

Transactions.

The phloem contains a fairly large amount of parenchyma. The xylem
elements are very regularly arranged. The xylem contains only a very
small number of tracheae ; it is composed almost entirely of wood-fibres
and wood-tracheides. The fibres and tracheides have fairly thick cell-
walls. The tracheides are j)itted.

Fig. 3. — Hymsnanthera dentata var. alphia. Transverse section of stem
( X 175). a, cork ; b, oil in cortical cells ; c, jjoricycle fibres ;
(I, ])hl()em ; e, medullary ray ; /, pith with starch in cells.

The medullary rays are fairly numerous ; they are uniseriate and have
tliickened lignified walls. The cells contain starch.

The pith is solid, and consists of very closely packed rounded or polygonal
cells with thickened lignified walls. These cells contain numerous starch-grains.

Betts. — Auf ecology of Plants of Peridot ite Belt, Kelson. 141

13. Pimelea Suteri T. Kirk.

Growth-form. — " A small much-branched shrub, 4-12 in. high ; branches
spreading or suberect, often tortuous ; the younger ones sparingly pilose
with rather long straight silky hairs ; bark, dark red-brown or black. Leaves
crowded, shortly petiolate or nearly sessile, erecto-patent, about \ in. long,
narrow linear-lanceolate, subacute, coriaceous, concave above, both surfaces
glabrous or rarely with a few lax hairs, margins and apices ciliated with
long straight hairs."

Anatomy.

Leaf (figs. 4, .5). — Fig. 4 gives a diagrammatic view of the transverse
section, while fig. 5 shows a portion of the section in detail.

Both the upper and the lower eiaidermis consist of narrow rectangular
cells, which have their lateral and internal walls slightly thickened and the

external ones considerably
thickened. There is a cuticle
on both surfaces. Stomates
are found on both surfaces,
and are slightly sunken below
the thickened epidermal
walls. The guard-cells have
thickened walls, and the
opening is protected by guard-
cell ridges.

Below the epidermis, on
both surfaces, there is a
hypoderma of very large
colourless cells : these form
mucilage-sacs.

The chlorenchyma is dif-
ferentiated. The palisade
tissue is found on both sides
of the leaf. It consists of
2-3 rows of cells, these
being somewhat larger in the
upper than in the lower pali-
sade tissue. The walls are
thin and contain numerous
chloroplasts. Some of the
cells contain tannin. The
air-spaces in this tissue are
small. Beneath the stomates
the layer of mucilage-cells is -
interrupted by the palisade
tissue. Beneatli each stoma
there is a fairly large cavity.
The spongy tissue consists
of somewhat irregular cells
with numerous chloroplasts. The air-spaces are small. Most of the
cells contain tannin.

Surrounding the vascular bundle there is a sheath of thin-walled paren-
chymatous cells which contain tannin. The xylem is formed of wood-fibres
and tracheides of small diameter and with thickened walls. The xylem is

Fig. 4. — Pimelea Snterl. Transverse section of
leaf (diagrammatic) ( X 36). a, epidermis ;

b, mucilage-cells ; c, chlorenchyma.

Fig. 5. — Pimelea Suteri. Transverse section of
leaf (X 17.5). a, cuticle; b, epidermis;

c, mucilage-sac ; d, palisade parenchyma ;
c, bundle-sheath ; /, xylem ; g, phloem ;
h, sclerenchyma ; *, stoma.

142

Transactions.

very regularly arranged. The amount of phloem is small ; the phloem
parenchyma cells contain tannin. Beneath the pliloem there is some
stereome, consisting of small cells with very thick walls and small lumen.
Stem (fig. 6). — The cork forms a wide band 20-30 cells wide. The cells
are large and have thick walls.

Fig. Q.— Pimelea Suteri. Transverse section of stem (x 175).
a, cork ; 6, cortex ; c, fibres ; d, phloem ; e, cambium ;
/, trachea ; f/, jjith.

The cortex consists of large oval cells, which have thick, somewhat
mucilaginous, cell-walls. The tissue is compact, only small air-spaces being
present. The cells of the outer part of the cortex contain tannin, and those
of the inner part contain small drops of oil. There are numerous small
groups of pericycle fibres, composed of very small cells with thick walls
and small cavities.

Betts. — Aiift colrx/ji of Plants of Peridotite Btlt, Xelson. 143

The phloem is a practicall}' continuous band (only interrupted by a
few uniseriate meduHary rays). The xylem contains numerous tracheae,
but tlie bulk of the xylem is occupied by tracheides and by wood-fibres
of small diameter and with small lumen.

The medullary rays are few ; they are uniseriate, and the cells have
lignified walls. The amount of pith is small ; it consists of small roundish
cells, most of which contain tannin.

14. Metrosideros robusta A. Cunn.

Usual Growth-form. — " A tall and stout forest-tree, 60-80 ft. or even
100 ft. high ; trunk irregular, 3-8 ft. diameter or more ; branches spreading,
forming a huge rounded head ; branchlets -l-angled, puberulous. Leaves
decussate, 1-1| in. long, elliptic-oblong or ovate-oblong or elliptic-lanceo-
late, obtuse, glabrous, very coriaceous ; petioles short, stout, glabrous or
puberulous."

Mineral Belt Growth-form. — A small, rounded, compact bush.

Anatom^j.

Leaf (fig. 7). — The upper epidermis consists of small cells with thin
walls, but with a verv thick cuticle. The cells of this layer contain small

Fig. 7. — Melrodderos robusta. Transvei-se section of leaf (x 110). a, tliick cuticle;

b, epidermis ; c, hypodorma ; d, palisade tissue ; e, xylein ; /, phloem ;

g, oil-gland.
Fig. 8. — Metrosideros robusta. Transver.se section of stem ( X 24). a, tliick cuticle ;

b, cortex ; c, pericycle fibres ; d, phloem ; e, xyle?n.

drops of oil. The cells of the lower epidermis are smaller than those of the
upper, and the cuticle is thinner and ridged. On both surfaces of the leaf
are numerous large oil-glands ; they are more numerous on the lower surface

144 Transactions.

Stomates are confined to the lower surface. The guard-cells are small,
with thickened walls, and the stomates are protected by guard-cell ridges.

Below the epidermis there is a well-marked hypoclerma ; the upper
hypoderma consists of 1 layer of large cells with thick walls, while the lower,
a layer 1-2 cells thick, is composed of smaller cells, also with thick walls.
All the hypodermal cells contain tannin.

The chlorenchyma is differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of
3 compact row^s of cells, most of which contain tannin. The spongy tissue
is composed of very irregular cells loosely arranged, so that there are large
intercellular air-spaces. These cells have thickened walls, and many of
them contain tannin.

The bundle-sheath consists of small, oval, thin-walled cells which con-
tain tannin. Above the xylem and below the phloem there is stereome,
consisting of small cells with thick walls, the cells adjacent to the phloem
being smaller than those above the phloem. The xylem consists of wood-
fibres and vessels of small diameter ; these are arranged regularly in rows,
which are separated by rows of small, thin- walled, parenchymatous cells
which contain tannin.

Stem (fig. 8). — Fig. 8 is a diagrammatic view of a young stem.

The epidermis is comj)osed of very small thin-walled cells ; there is a
thick cuticle.

The cortex consists of small thin-walled cells, more or less rounded in
shape, the outer layers containing small chloroj)lasts. Most of the cortical
cells contain tannin.

The pericycle fibres form a continuous ring round the phloem. The
fibres are of small diameter, and their walls are very thick.

All the phloem parenchyma cells contain tannin, as do also the cells
of the medullary rays and of the pith. The cambium is well marked, con-
sisting of 3 rows of small regular cells. The xylem consists of vessels of fairly
large diameter, and of wood-fibres of small diameter. The medullary rays
are uniseriate, and their cells have thickened lignified walls.

The pith consists of rather small roundish cells which are closely arranged
together. Some of the pith-cells contain crystal-aggcegates of calcium
oxalate.

15. Metrosideros lucida A. Rich,

Usual Growth-form. — " Usually a tall erect branching tree 30-60 ft. high,
but often dwarfed to a small bush in subalpine or exposed localities ; bark
pale, papery ; branchlets and young leaves silky. Leaves l|-3 in. long,
elliptic-lanceolate or lanceolate, acuminate, very coriaceous, pale glossy-
green above, dotted with oil-glands beneath, narrowed into a short stout
petiole."

Mineral Belt Growth-form.. — A small, rounded, woody bush, with leaves
f-l| in. long.

Anatomy.

The structure of both stem and leaf corresponds with that in M. robnsta

16. Epilobium pedunculare Hook. f.

Growth-form. — A small herb, with slender prostrate branches 2-6 in. long,
which root at the nodes and are sparingly branched. The branches are
almost glabrous. The leaves are opposite, -|— |^ in. long, orbicular-ovate,
rounded at the apex, fleshy and entire, and with a very short petiole.

Betts. — AuteroJogii of Plants of Peridot if e Belt, Nelxo/i.

145

Anntomj/.

Leaf. — The upper and the lower epidermis consist of more or less
rectangular cells with thin walls, except for the external ones, which
are slightly thickened. A thin cuticle is present. Stomates are equally
numerous on both surfaces ; the guard-cells are small, and level with the
surface.

The chlorenchyma is differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of
3 layers of cells with thin walls, and containing numerous chloroplasts ;
these cells are closely packed together. The spongy tissue is composed of
more or less irregular thin-walled cells, forming a compact tissue with
only very small intercellular air-spaces. The chloroplasts are not nearly
as abundant in this tissue as in the palisadic. At intervals in the
mesophyll there are canals which are surrounded by a layer of epithelial
cells. Raphides of calcium oxalate are found in the mesophyll.

Fig. 9. — Epilobium pedunculare. Transverse section of stem ( x 36). a, epidermis ;

6, cortical chlorenchyma ; c, colourless cortex ; d, endoderrais ; e, phloem ;

/, xylem ; g, pith with starch ; //, j^ith without starch.
Fig. 10. — Ejnlobiiaii pubens. Transverse section of stem (x 36). a, epidermal hair;

b, cortical chlorenchyma ; c, colourless cortex ; d, endodermis ; e, phloem ;

/, xylem ; g, pith with starch ; h, pith without starch.

The vascular bundles are small, and contain only a small amount of
lignified tissue. Below the midrib there are small more or less rounded
cells, which contain a very few chloroplasts. This forms a water-tissue.
In the vicinity of the vascular bundles the lower epidermal cells are smaller
and have thicker walls.

Stem (fig. 9). — The epidermis is composed of small cells, which in trans-
verse section are squarish or round. These cells have thickened walls, and
there is also a cuticle, which is, however, only thin. Some of the epidermal
cells are produced into thin-walled unicellular hairs, which contain proto-
plasm. Stomates are present, but are not numerous ; the guard-cells are
small, and level with the surface, as in the leaf.

The cortex forms a fairly wide band, about 9 cells wide. The outer
portion consists of small cells with thickened walls, and containing a few
chloroplasts. The inner part of the cortex consists of larger roundish or
polygonal thin-walled cells which are compactly arranged, so that there
are only very small air-spaces. These cells contain starch-grains. The
endodermis is well defined ; it consists of a single layer of large oval
or rectangular cells with suberized walls.

146 Transactions.

The phloem forms a continuous ring round the xylem ; the phloem
parencliyma cells contain small starch -grains. The xvlem forms a band
only slightly wider than the phloem ; it consists of vessels and of wood-
fibres.

The i)ith consists of thin-walled more or less circular cells, with small
air-spaces between them. The cells adjacent to the xylem are small, and
contain starch. There is a large pith-cavity.

17. Epilobium pubens A. Rich.

Growth-form. — The plant is a small herb, with stems 3-8 in. high,
slender, simple, decumbent and woody at the base, erect above, terete,
uniformly clothed with a short fine pubescence. The leaves are alternate,
\-l in. long, ovate, obtuse, narrowed into slender petioles, pubescent on
both surfaces, thin and toothed.

Anatomy.

Leaf. — This is thinner than in E. pedunculare, and the veins are more
prominent. The upper epidermis is formed of large cells, more or less
rectangular in transverse section ; the walls are thin, except the external
ones, which are somewhat thickened. A thin cuticle is present. Some of
the epidermal cells are produced into unicellular hairs, which contain proto-
plasm and which have thin cutinized walls. The lower epidermis is similar
to the upper, except that the cells are smaller. Stomates are confined to
the lower surface, where they are very numerous. The guard-cells are
small, and are slightly raised above the surface of the epidermis.

The palisade tissue is composed of 2 rows of thin-walled cells closely
packed together, so that there are only very small intercellular air-spaces.
These cells contain chloroplasts, which are smaller and much less numerous
than in E. 'pedimculare.

The spongy tissue consists of about 4 rows of more or less rounded thin-
walled cells, which are somewhat loosely arranged. Raphides of calcium
oxalate are present in the mesophyll. Many of the mesophyll cells, especi-
ally those of the palisade tissue, contain drops of oil. Canals are present,
as in E. pedunculare, but they are more numerous.

The vascular bundles are larger than in E. pedunculare, and the xylem
contains more lignified elements. Around and below the bundles is a
water-storage tissue, which consists of thin-walled, polygonal, closely packed,
colourless cells.

Stem (fig. 10). — ^The epidermis consists of small oval or rectangular cells,
with all walls thickened and with a fairly thick cuticle. Many of the
epidermal cells are produced into straight unicellular hairs, w^hich contain
protoplasm and have thin cutinized walls. Stomates are not numerous ;
they are level with the epidermis, and the guard-cells are small.

The outer layers of the cortex (about 3 rows of cells) consist of oval
cells, with their walls slightly thickened and with small intercellular air-
spaces. These cells contain a few chloroplasts, and some of tliem contain
oil. The rest of the cortex consists of larger more irregular cells. The
endodermis is well marked, and is composed of a layer of large cells with
thin suberized walls.

The phloem forms a narrower band than in E. pedunculare, and the
xylem is wider, but is of the same type.

Betts. — Ai(feroI'j(/i/ of I'lants of Peridotite Belt, Kelson. 147

18. Anisotome filifolium (Hook, f.) Cockayne and Laing.

Growth-form. — This is a slender aromatic herb. The stems are about
4-8 in. high, smooth and striate. The leaves are 3-6 in. long, and are
flaccid ; the blades are very variable in size, and are ternately divided into
narrow filiform acute segments |— H in. long. The petioles are long, slender,
sheathing at the base ; the sheaths are short, broad, and membranous.

Anatomy.

Leaf (fig. 11). — The epidermal cells are large, those of the upper
epidermis being a little larger than those of the lower ; the cell-walls are
thickened, the external walls being very much thicker than the lateral or
internal ones. There is a cuticle on both surfaces. Stomates are found on
both surfaces, being somewhat more numerous on the lower than on the
upper face. The stomates are raised above the epidermal cells, but not
above their thickened walls. The guard-cells have thickened walls, and
the stoma is protected by guard-cell ridges.

Pig. 11. — Anisotome filifolium. Transverse sections of leaf (x 175). a, cuticle;

6, thickened epidermal walls : c, stoma ; d, oil-duct ; /, xylem ; g, phloem ;

/;, spongy tissue.
P'iG. 12. — Anisotome filifolium. Transverse section of jieduncle (diagrammatic) ( X 17.5).

a, sclerenchyma ; b, cortex ; c, pericycle fibres ; d, xylem ; e, lignified

pith ; /, pith-cavity.

The chlorenchyma is differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue.
The palisade tissue is composed of 1-4 rows of cells (1 near the margin,
4 in the centre of the lamina). The cells are large and elongated, thin-
walled and compactly arranged, and contain abundant chloroplasts. The
palisadic tissue passes gradually into the spongy, which consists of rather
irregular cells with thin walls and containing abundant chloroplasts. This
tissue is loosely arranged, so that there are large air-spaces. There are
large air-spaces beneath the stomates. Above the lower epidermis there is
a layer of chlorenchymatous cells, which are smaller, more regular, and are
closelv arranged.

148

Transactions.

In the leaf there are 3 larger veins and 2 very small ones. They are
surrounded by a sheath of small thin-walled parenchymatous cells, which
contain only a small number of chloroplasts. Below each bundle there
is an oil-duct, surrounded by 6-8 small epithelial cells. The amount
of lignified tissue in the bundle is small.

Peduncle (figs. 12 and 13). — Fig. 12 gives a schematic view of the
transverse section. In each ridge there is a group of lignified cells, and
the whole of the central part is lignified. Fig. 13 shows the structure in
detail.

Fig. 13. — Animtunie filifolium. Transverse section of peduncle ( X 175). m, cuticle;
6, stoma ; c, chlorenehyma ; d, oil-duct ; e, aqueous tissue ; /, pericycle
fibres ; g, phloem ; h, cambium ; i, xylem ; j. pith.

The epidermis consists of small cells, which are squarish above the ridges
and are rectangular or oval in the furrows. The walls of these cells are
thickened and lignified, and there is a cuticle. Stomates are found in the
furrows. They are level with the epidermis ; the guard-cells have thickened
walls, and the opening is protected by guard-cell ridges.

Beneath the epidermis in the ridges there is a mass of sclerenchyma :
this is composed of small cells with very thick walls and small lumen. Under
the epidermis in the furrows are about 5 rows of chlorenchymatous cells.
This band is also present under the sclerenchyma in the ridges ; here it is
about 2 cells wide. The outermost layer of this band of tissue consists
of cells which are slightly elongated in a direction parallel with the surface,
and which have slightly thickened walls. The rest of the chlorenchymatous
tissue consists of more or less rounded cells with thinner walls. This
tissue is vexy compact.

Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Ptridofife Belt, Nelson. 149

Inside this zone of tissue there is a band of colourless cortical tissue :
this is composed of large roundish or polygonal cells, forming a compact
tissue with only very small intercellular air-spaces. These cells are colour-
less, and form a water-storage tissue.

Above the phloem of the bundles there is a small group of pericycle
fibres with thick walls and small cavities. Above the fibres there is a duct
of large diameter, lined by about 8 epithelial cells. The phloem is a narrow
band of small elements ; the cambium, 2 rows of cells, can be clearly
seen. The xylem consists of vessels of fairly large diameter and of xylem
parenchyma.

All the ground-tissue internal to the water-tissue is lignified. The
3 or 4 rows of cells adjacent to the water-tissue are small, thick- walled,
and compactly arranged. Passing inwards from this tlie cells become
larger and their cell-walls thinner, but they are still lignified. There are
large intercellular air-spaces where 3 or more cells meet. The stem is
hollow.

19. Anisotome aromaticum Hook, f. var.

Growth-form. — A small aromatic herb, matted and depressed, 1-2^ in.
high. The root is stout, long, and tapering. The stem is simple. The
leaves are all radictil, numerous, 1-6 in. long ; the blade is linear and
pinnate ; the leaflets are in 6-12 pair;-;, ^-| in. long, more or less incised ;
the lobes end in a bristle-like point. The petiole is short, stout, and broadly
sheathing at the base.

Anatomy.

Leaf (figs. 14, 15). — Fig. 14 shows the form of the leaf, and fig. 15 gives
a diagrammatic view of the transverse section.

The upper epidermis consists of fairly large squarish cells with thick
walls. A thick cuticle is present, forming a minute papilla above each
cell. There are no stomates on the upper surface. The lower e})idermis
consists of smaller cells than the upper ; the walls are thickened, and there
is a thick smooth cuticle. Stomates are confined to the lower surface,
where they are slightly raised above the epidermis. The stoma is pro-
tected by guard-cell ridges. Beneath the upper epidermis there is a hypo-
derma, fortaed of thick-walled cells like those of the upper epidermis ; these
cells contain a few small chloroplasts.

The palisade tissue is formed of 2 rows of cells, which are small, thin-
wallc^d, closely packed together, and contain numerous chloroplasts. The
spongy tissue consists of irregular cells, with the walls slightly thickened ;
they are loosely arranged, and contain numerous chloroplasts. The meso-
phyll cells just above the lower epidermis are much smaller, are rounded,
and are closely packed together.

The vascular bundles are surrounded by a sheath of thin-walled paien-
chymatous cells, which contain a very few chloroplasts. The amount of
lignified tissue in the xylem is small. Above the xylem and below the
phloem there are ducts lined by a single layer of small epithelial cells. The
duct below the phloem is much larger in diameter than that adjacent to
the xylem.

Peduncle (fig. 16.) — The epidermis consists of very small rounded or
squarish cells, with thickened walls and a fairly thick cuticle.

The outer 3 or 4 rows of cortical cells are small round cells, with very
thick walls and no air-spaces between the cells. The remaining part of

150

Trftiisdctions.

the cortex consists of larger cells, with thinner walls and small intercellular
spaces between the cells. All the cortical cells contain chloroplasts.

Above each group of phloem there is a wide oil-duct surrounded by
epithelial cells. The phloem elements are small, but the width of phloem
band is much greater than in A. filifolium. The xylem is divided into
2 parts : (1) next to the phloem there is a band of wood-fibres ; (2) a group
of 5-10 vessels with xylem parenchyma.

The pith is composed of large thin-walled cells, but in the outer part
the cells are smaller, and their walls are thicker and are lignified.

Fig. 14. — Anisolome aromaticum. Entire leaf ( X h). a, sheathing ba.se.
Fig. 1.5. — Anisoto)»e aromaticum. Transver.se section of leaf (X 36).

a, cuticle ; b, hypoderina ; c, palisade parenchyma ; d, spongy

parenchyma ; c, oil-duct ; /, xylem ; g, phloem.
Fig. 16. — Anisotome aromaticum. Transverse section of peduncle (X 36).

a, cuticle ; b, collenchyma ; c, cortex ; d, oil-duct ; e, pericycle

fibres ; /, phloem ; g, xylem.

20. Griselinia littoralis Raoul.

Usual Growth-form. — " A round-headed tree, 30-50 ft. high ; trunk
short, irregular, gnarled or twisted, 2-5 ft. diameter ; bark rough, fur-
rowed. Leaves 1-4 in. long, ovate or oblong-ovate, rounded at the tip,

Betts. — Auft'cologii of Planf.t of Pfridotite Bdf, Nelsov. 151

less unequal-sided at the base than in G. lucida, and sometimes almost
symmetrical, pale yellowish-green, thick and coriaceous ; veins obscure ;
petiole slender, |-1 in. long."

Mineral Belt Growth-form. — A woody shrub attaining a height of
about 6 ft.

Anatomy.

Leaf. — The structure of the leaf has been described and figured by Miss
Suckling {Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 46, pp. 186-87, 1914). My specimens
agree in leaf-structure with her description of the leaf of a well-illuminated
tree, excej)t that the hypodermal cells are larger than she figures.

Stem. — The epidermis is comi)osecl of small oval cells, which contain
oil and which have thickened cell-walls, and in addition there is a thick
uneven cuticle which is of a light-green colour.

The cortex is wide ; the cells are oval and thick-walled. In the outer
part the cortex is very compact, but in the inner part there are air-spaces
between the cells.

The pericycle fibres do not form a continuous band round the phloem.
The fibres are of small diameter, and their walls are so much thickened
that the cell-cavities are almost obliterated.

The phloem forms a wide continuous band. The xylem consists of vessels
and of wood-fibres, both of which are of fairly large diameter.

The medullary rays are nearly all uniseriate, with thickened lignified
cell-walls. Tliese rays are numerous There are also a few multiseriate
rays 2-4 cells wide.

The pith is formed of round cells with thickened lignified walls, and
containing abundant starch. Small intercellular air-spaces are present.

21. Gaultheria antipoda Forst. var.

Growth-form. — An erect much-branched rigid shrub 6-15 in. high. The
branches are stout, sometimes glabrous but usually more or less clothed
with a brownish pubescence. The leaves are alternate, shortly petiolate,
about I in. long, orbicular, obtuse, bluntly serrate, and very coriaceous.
The leaves are glabrous, except the petioles, which are pubescent.

Anatomy.

Leaf. — The upper epidermis consists of small rectangular cells. A thick
cuticle is present. The lower epidermal cells are smaller than the upper,
and the cuticle is not so thick. Stomates are confined to the lower surface,
and are protected by guard-cell ridges. Beneath the epidermis there is a
hypoderma — 1 layer of large cells with their walls slightly thickened.

The palisade tissue is composed of 3 rows of thin-walled cells, which
contain numerous chloroplasts arranged along the lateral walls. There are
no air-spaces between these cells. The spongy tissue consists of irregular
loosely arranged thin- walled cells which contain numerous chloroplasts.

The vascular bundles are numerous. Each is more or less surrounded
by stereome — small polygonal cells with very thick walls and small lumen.
The parenchymatous elements of the bundle contain tannin.

Stem. — The epidermis is composed of small roundish cells with thickened
walls and with a thick cuticle. Some of the epidermal cells are produced
into long unicellular hairs, with thickened and slightly cutinized walls.

In the section of an older stem the corky layer is thick, and is composed
of very small cells with thick walls

152 Transactions.

The cortex consists of large oval cells with thick walls. The outer
region of the cortex is very compact, but the inner part has the cells loosely
arranged.

The phloem is of the usual type. The xylem is composed of numerous
vessels of moderately large diameter, and of wood-fibres with thick cell-
walls.

The medullary rays are iiumerous and are uniseriate ; the cells have
their walls thickened and lignified. .\11 the medvillary-ray cells contain
tannin.

The pith is composed of two kinds of cells : (1) Small more or less
]}olygonal cells with thick walls, and containing tannin ; (2) much larger
thin-walled cells : in these the walls are only slightly lignified and the
cells do not contain tannin.

22. Dracophyllum Urvilleanum A. Rich.

Growth-form. — A much-branched shrub 3-5 ft. high ; the branches are
slender and erect, with black or dark-brown bark. The leaves are erect,
.slender, 1-3| in. long. The sheathing base is \-\ in. broad, brown, striate,
and membranous ; the blade is very narrow and coriaceous.

Anatomy.
Leaj (figs. 17, 18). — The upper epidermis consists of small roundish cells
with thickened slightly lignified walls. A thick cuticle is present. Some
of the epidermal cells are produced into short stil? unicellular hairs, which
have extremely thick cutinized walls. The lower epidermis consists of
slightly smaller cells than does the upper : these cells also have thickened
lignified walls ; and there is a thick cuticle. Stomates are found on both
surfaces, but they are much more numerous on the lower surface. The
guard-cells have thickened walls, and the opening is protected by guard-
cell ridges.

Fig. 17. — Dracophyllum Urvilleanum. Transverse section of leaf ( X 48).
a, cuticle ; b, stereome ; c, vascular bundle.

The chlorenchyma is homogeneous ; it is a very compact tissue composed
of large cells with tlieir walls slightly thickened. Oil and tannin are present
in many of the mesophyll cells.

There are 7-9 vascular bundles ; all the xylem elements are lignified,
and the phloem parenchyma cells contain tannin.

Surrounding each vascular bundle there is a large mass of stereome ;
3-5 of these bands of sclerenchyma extend right across the leaf, from one
epidermis to the other. The groups around the bundles nearer the margins
of the leaf are much smaller. The sclerenchymatous cells are 4-6-sided,
and are very compactly arranged. The cells have very thick walls and
minute lumen.

In the margins of the leaf there are 1-3 layers of larger sclerenchymatous
cells.

Bett.s. — Autecologii of riuutg of Feridoiile Belt, Nelson. 153

Fig. 18. — Uracojihi/Uuui Urvilleatmm. Transverse section of leaf ( x 230). a, bristle ;

b, thick cuticle ; c, epidermis ; d, stereome ; e, phloem ; /, xylem ; g, stoma.
Fig. 19. — Dracophyllum Urvilleamcm. Transverse section of sheatliing leaf-base ( X 36).

a, cuticle ; b, mesophj'U ; c, stereome ; d, vascular buntUo ; e, lignified tissue.
Fig. 20. — Dracophyllum Urvilleanum. Transverse section of margin of leaf-base ( X 175).
Fig. 21. — Dracophyllum Urvilleanutn. Transverse section through middle of sheath

{ X 175). a, cuticle ; 6, epidermis ; c, stereome ; d, vascular bundle.

154

Transactions.

Sheathing Leaf -base (figs. 19-21). — This resembles the leaf in general
structure, but differs in a few details : (1.) The cells of the outer epidermis
are elongated at right angles to the surface. Like the epidermal cells of
the leaf, they have very thick walls, but here they are not lignified. The
inner epidermis is composed of roundish cells, with thickened lignified walls.
(2.) There is a cuticle on both surfaces, but it is not so thick as in the leaf.
(3.) Near the margins of the leaf all the cells, except those of the outer
epidermis, have thickened lignified walls. (4.) There is a hypoderma of
lignified cells on the upper surface.

Fig. 22. — Dracophijllum UrviUcanum. Transverse section of stem
(X 175). a, thick cuticle ; i, epidermis; c, dead cortex ;
d, pericycle fibres ; e, suberized tissue ; /, phloem ;
g, medullary ray ; /;, xj^lem ; /, air-passage ; j, pith.

Stem (fig. 22). — On the outside are the dead epidermal and cortical
cells. The epidermal cells are small, thick- walled, and have a very thick
cuticle. The cortical cells are irregular and thick-walled ; their walls are
suberized and also lignified.

Inside this layer are some fibres which form a more or less continuous
band of small cells with very thick walls and small lumen.

Then comes a band of corky tissue ; this is a moderately wide band,
and is composed of small regular thick-walled cells.

The phloem is also a fairly wide band ; the phloem elements are very
regularly arranged, and the parenchymatous cells contain tannin. The

Betts. — Aufecnif/r/i/ of Plants of I'tridoiite Bdf . Xelson.

155

xylem consists of vessels of small diameter with thickened walls and of
wood-fibres, with very thick walls and small cell-cavities.

Medullary rays are numerous and are uuiseriate ; they have thickened
lignified walls, and contain tannin. A few of the cells contain starch.
The pith is wide, and is solid. The cells are small, and have thickened
lignified walls. Many of these cells contain tannin. The cells are loosely
arranged, with large air-spaces between them.

23. Dracophyllum rosmarinifolium R. Br.

Groivfh-form. — This plant is a depressed or prostrate much -branched
rigid woody shrub, 3-18 in. high ; the branches are stout, spreading, leafy
at the tips. The leaves are erect, rigid, and curved, |-f in. long ; the
sheathing base is short, ^ in. wide; the blade is ^^^ in. wide at the base,
very thick and coriaceous, convex at the back and flat in front ; the ti])
is trigonous.

Axalonii/.

Leaf (fig. 23). — The structure of the leaf is the same as in D. Urvillecwitni,
the only differences being that the leaf is narrower and thicker. There are
3 large bundles and 4 smaller ones. Tannin idioblasts in the mesophyll
are more abundant than in D. UrvUIeanum.

2G >."ttrhTh?^

KT.

CI h r. d e

Fig. 23. — Dracop}ujllv,m rosmarinifolium. Tran&verse section of leaf (diagrammatic)

( X 36). a, bristles ; b, stereome ; c, vascular bmidle ; d, mesophyll.
Fig. 24. — PentncJwndra pumila. Transverse section of leaf (diagrammatic) ( X 36).

a, cuticle ; b, epidermis ; c, palisade tissue ; d, sprmgy tissue ; e, vascular

bundle.
Fig. 25. — Pentachondra jnnnila. Transverse section through upper epidermis (X 175).

a, cuticle ; b, thickened cell-wall ; c, cell-cavity.
Fig. 26. — Pentachondra pumila. Transverse section of lower epidermis (X 175).

a, stoma.
Fig. 27. — Pentachondra j>umila. Transverse section of stem (diagrammatic) ( X 36).

a, cork ; b, cortex ; c, radiating lines of suberized cells ; d, phloem ;

", xvlem.

Stem. — On the outside there are dead brown cells, the remains of the
old epidermis, cortex, and pericycle fibres.

The cork forms a wide zone of small compactly arranged cells. The
cells have thick walls, which in the inner part of the zone are lignified as
well as suberized.

156 Transactions.

Tlie cortex is a very narrow band of tissue, composed of small round
thick-walled cells which, contain tannin and which are closely packed
together, so that there are no air-spaces.

The phloem also is a narrow band of tissue. The phloem parenchyma
cells contain tannin. The xylem is of the same type as in T). Urvilleanum.
In addition to the numerous u.niseriate medullary rays, there are 3 or 4
wide multiseriate rays. The cells of the latter do not have lignified walls,
but they contain tannin. There are more wood-fibres with thickened walls
in the wood of this [)lant than in D. Urvilleanum.

The pith is solid and like that of D. Urvilleanum. except that tannin
is more abundant.

24. Pentachondra pumila R. Br.

Growlh-form. — This plant is a much and closely branched dwarf shrub,

2-6 in. high ; stems stout, woody, and procumbent ; the branches are

ascending, and are covered by a very dark-brown bark. The leaves are

numerous, crowded, suberect, | in. long, oblong to ovate-oblong, and with

a callous tip.

Anatomy.

Leaf (figs. 24-26). — In shape the transverse section is like that of the
leaf of Draco phijllum Urvilleanum, but in the latter the convex surface is
the lower, and in this plant it is the upper.

The upper surface consists of large regular cells, which are slightly
elongated at right angles to the surface of the leaf. The lateral and internal
walls of these cells are thin, but the external walls are very much thickened.
In addition there is a very thick rough cuticle. The lower epidermis consists
of small regular cells. Their walls are only slightly thickened ; and there
is a thick cuticle, which is not, however, as thick as on the upper surface
of the leaf. Stomates are confined to the lower surface ; they are not
frequent. The guard-cells are at the same level as the other epidermal
cells, and their walls are only slightly thickened. The guard-cell ridges
are small.

The chlorenchyma is differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of
2 layers of large typical palisade cells. Tlie spongy parenchyma consists
of smaller more or less irregular cells. All the mesophyll cells are thin-
wallecl. There are air-spaces between the cells in both the spongy and
the palisade tissue, but they are small. The cells contain numerous rather
small chloroplasts, and many contain tannin. Oil-drops are found in some
of the mesophyll cells and also in the cells of the upper epidermis.

The vascular bundles are small, and the parenchyma of both the xylem
and the phloem contains tannin. Beneath each vascular bundle there is
a small mass of stereome, consisting of small cells with very thick walls.

Stem (fig. 27). — The corky tissue forms a band of varying width ; the
cells are small, and have thick walls.

The cortex is a moderately wide band of very regular oval cells, which
have thin walls and which contain tannin. This tissue has onlv verv small
intercellular air-spaces.

The phloem, xylem, and medullary rays are the same as in Dracophyllum
Urvilleanum. The phloem parenchyma and the medullary rays contain
tannin.

Scattered in the phloem and in the cortex there are more or less radial
lines of small cells with suberized walls.

The pith is solid, and consists of large more or less polygonal cells with
thickened lignified walls. These cells contain tannin.

Speight. — Geologn of the Trtlissick Basin. 157

Art. XIX. — Further Notes on the Geology of the Trelissick or Castle Hill

Basin.

By E. Speight, M.Sc, Curator of the Canterbury Museum.

[Bead before the Philosojihical Institute of Canterbury, 18th September, 1918 ; received by
Editor, 30th December, 1918 ; issued separately, 26th May, 1919.']

The following additional notes with regard to the Trelissick Basin are made
as the result of further examination since my former paper* was published.
The first matter concerns the existence of another detached block of lime-
stone on the western side of the area at the base of the Craigieburn Range.
This was hidden by bush during my former examination of the locality,
but fire has swept over it and exposed the rock clearly to view. I should
have observed it, however, had I ascended the Hog's Back Creek about a
quarter of a mile above the turning it makes on striking the Hog's Back
Ridge, as the bed crosses the creek and is exposed on its banks under the
covering of shingle. The limestone here forms a heav}^ baud, striking
east-north-east, pointing towards the saddle between the Hog's Back Creek
and Waterfall Creek in one direction, and iu the other runnmg towards one
of the spurs of the Craigieburn Range. In the creek the bed is 100 ft.
thick, dipping generally north-north-west at an angle of 85°, but is much
contorted in places. It is well jointed, slightly crystalline, and distinctly
coralline. When traced towards the south-west through the burnt bush the
dip flattens out and has a general direction of south-south-east at an angle
of 45°. The relations to the greywackes at the point where it abuts on
the spur of the Craigieburn Range are obscured by bush and a covering of
loose debris, but the general circumstances suggest a fault contact, and the
relations to the limestone of the Hog's Back Ridge are also difficult to
make out, but some strong deformation, either of faulting or acute folding,
certainly occurs between them.

Another detached block of limestone occurs on the north side of the
Long Spur, which divides the basin of the Hog's Back Creek from that of
the Thomas River. This dips west at an angle of 45°, but at its southern
end the strike turns round so that it becomes north-east. The rock is much
brecciated. It is possible that this forms a syncline with the block of rock
just referred to, the uppermost members of the Tertiary sequence being
developed in a basin shape between them.

Near the southern end of the Hog's Back a fossil locality was discovered
in the bed of the creek. The bed is 3 ft. in thickness where ex]:>osed, and
consists of sand and shell layers, striking east, and dipping south at an
angle of 75° — that is, parallel to the limestone of the Hog's Back in its
vicinity. The following fossils were obtained : Cucullaea ponderosa Hutt.,
Fulgoraria arabica elongata (Swains.), Paphia cvrta (Hutt.)

My attention has been drawn by Dr. W. P. Evans and Mr. A. E. Flower,
who were recently camping in the district, to another important fossil
horizon in the Thomas River. This occurs in the bed and on the north
bank of the stream just op2:)osite the" junction of the little creek that flows
past the farm and joins the Thomas in the vicinity of the old wool-scouring
works. The strata consist here of sands, sandy clays, and dark sandy shales
with numerous specimens of Ostrea ingens. Underneath the oyster-bed are

* R. Speight, The Stratigraphy of the Tertiary Beds of the Trelissick or Castle
Hill Basin, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, p. 321, 1917.

158 T ransacfious.

dark sandy shales, light-coloured and greenish-grey sands, sometimes glau-
conitic, in the upper part of which are very fragmentary fossil shells. The
dark sands weather brown, and occasionally have lenses of crystalline
calcite running through them. Farther down stream there is the same
alternation of sands and shales with lignite, and in one of the beds of sand,
about 2 chains above a fence crossing the creek, is a layer of shell-fragments
which include Struthiolaria tubercidata and Plejona kuttoni psei(dorarispina.
These beds pass down into the sands with numerous shell-fragments, to be
referred to later.

The beds in the vicinity of the wool-scour strike north-west and dip
south-west at angles of about 20°, and they continue to do so for a little
distance up-stream, where lignite again occurs associated with greenish
sands, but above this the strike mugt swing sharply round till it becomes
east-north-east — that is, along the creek. As the beds are followed up-
stream, the dip becomes steeper, as much as 60'^, in agreement with the
strike and dip of the limestone, south of the road, forming the north-eastern
corner of Castle Hill. The beds here consist of greenish and yellowish white
sands and sandy shales, the latter occasionally carbonaceous. I was fortu-
nate on this occasion to be able to locate exactly the bed of Ostrea iiigens,
first recorded by Park,* for the heavy floods during the last season had
swept the face free from surface debris and exposed the fossil-bed clearly.
I had repeatedly searched for the bed without success, and am glad to give
confirmatory evidence of his interesting discovery. It was quite by over-
sight that I made no reference to this point in my original paper, and I
regret the omission.

At the point where this bed is exposed the following series is shown on
the face of the clifi, the sequence being in ascending order and the total
thickness about 25ft.: (1) impure lignite; (2) sandy shales; (3) greyish
sands ; (4) sandy shales ; (5) greyish argillaceous sands ; (6) oyster-bed.
12 in. to 18 in. thick, in dark argillaceous matrix ; (7) greyish sandy shales ;
(8) greyish sands, weathering brown ; (9) white sands.

Park is quite correct in his inference that this oyster-bed (6) is consider-
ably higher than the beds developed just above the limestone gorge of thi'
Porter, since this bed is probably at a higher level than that occurring
opposite the wool-scour, which is undoubtedly at a higher level strati-
graphically than that containing numerous Struthiolaria, which in turn over-
lies the limestone. However, the exact correlation of the two oyster-beds
is a matter of doubt owing to the absence of continuous exposure and the
slipped character of the country, especially the high banks of the Thomas,
where they are overlain by gravels. Although shell-fragments were observed
higher up the stream still, above the road-crossing, no other bed of oysters
was located, although it may easily occur buried up by surface debris The
occurrence of the Ostrea ingens indicates clearly that the beds associated
with it are of Mio -Pliocene age.

Still another fossil horizon was located in the Porter River, about a mile
above the limestone gorge, and just below the junction of the river with a
rocky creek coming from Mount Torlesse. In the bed of the stream is a
small exposure of greensands containing numerous specimens of the black
oyster {Ostrea angasi). The beds strike north-east, and dip north-west 40°.
Associated with this is another bed containing fragmentary shells in poor

* J. Park. .Mariae Tertiaries of Otago and Canterlniiv, Trans. S.Z. Inst., vol. 37,
p. 535, 1905.

Speight. — Geology of the TnJissick Basin. 159

state of preservation. A fragment of a gasteropod showed part of a suture-
line with a well-defined band below it, suggesting the Cretaceous genus
Nerinaea, which has recently been obtained in Southland by Marshall.

A special object of my recent visits to the locality was to collect fossils
from the loose sands and concretionary bands above the limestones, beds
which have been classed as '' Pareora " by all who have examined the
Castle Hill Basin. A fu.ll description of these beds, specially those occurring
between the two gorges of the Porter River, was given in my previous paper,
and so it is unnecessary to mention their lithological features any further;
but the beds are also exposed in the bed of Broken River below the road-
crossing, in the Thomas, in Home Creek near its junction with the Porter,
and in a tributary coming in on the north side of Whitewater Creek, and
elsewhere. Collections were made in four of these localities. It is unfor-
tunate, however, that the great majority of the fossils are in a poor state of
preservation. Between the two gorges of the Porter there are two distinct
horizons yielding shells. In the lower of these the following were obtained : —

Cardium ? sp.

Cerithium hectori Harris.

Conwiinella infiata (Hutt.).

* Macrocallista multisfrkita (Sow.).

* Mactra discors Gray.

* Mesodesma atistrale (Gmel.).
Paphia curta (Hutt.).
Polinices gibbosus (Hutt.).
PoUnices ovatus (Hutt.).

* Tellina eugonia Sut.

In the lower horizon at Whitewater Creek, in the same stratigraphical
position as the above, the following were obtained : *Calyptraea macnlata
infiata (Hutt.), Cerithimn hectori Harris, Crassatellites aftenuatus (Hutt.).

In both these localities there is a well-defined upper horizon characterized
by numerous individuals of Sfnithiolaria, which for that reason may be
called the Struthiolaria bed. Between the Porter gorges the following were
collected : —

Cerithium hectori Harris.

Crepidida striata (Hutt.).

Fastigiella australis Sut.t

Glycijmeris globosa (Hutt.).

Glycymeris laticostata (Q. & G.).

Paphia curta (Hutt.).

Plejona (Athleta) huttoni pseudorarispina Sut.

Polinices gibbosus (Hutt.).

Struthiolaria tuberculata Hutt.

In beds in similar stratigraphical position in the tributary of the White-
water the following were obtained : —
Cerithimn hectori Harris.
Crassatellites attemiatus (Hutt.),
Crepidula striata (Hutt.).
Fastigiella australis Sut.f

* Mactra discors Gray.
Polinices gibbosus (Hutt.).
Paphia curta (Hutt.).
Struthiolaria tubercidata Hutt.

* Recent. f New species described in this volume (p. 68).

160 Transactions.

In Broken River the following were obtained :—
*Calyptraea maculata inflata (Hutt.).

Cerithium hectori Harris.

Grassatellites attenuatus (Hutt.).

Crepidula striata (Hutt.).
*Diplodonta zelandica (Gray).
*Dosinia greyi Zitt.

Hemiconus ornatus (Hutt.).

Strut hiolaria tuherculata Hutt.

From Home Creek the following were obtained : —

Ancilla papillata (Tate).
* Cahjptraea maculata (Q. and G.).
*Calyptraea maculata inflata (Hutt.).

Cardium spatiosum Hutt.

Cerithium hectori Harris.

Chione speighti Sut.

Crassatellites attenuatus (Hutt.).
*Crepidula monoxyla (Less.).

Ci/therea enysi Hutt.
*Diplodo7ita zelandica (Gray).
*Divaricella cumingi (Ad. & Aug.).

Lima crassa (Hutt.).

Lima kuttoni Sut.

Lima jejfreysiana Tate.

Mactra attenuata Hutt.

Modiolaria elongata (Hutt.).

Paphia curta (Hutt.).

Pecten aff. ckathamensis Hutt.

Plejona {Aihleta) huttoni pseudorarispina Sut.

Polinices gihbosus (Hutt.).

Solariella cf. sulcatina Sut.

Sfruthiolaria tuherculata Hutt.

Turritella 1 sp.

An examination of these lists does not disclose any noteworthy difference
between the fossil content of the lower set of beds in the Porter and White-
water Rivers and that of the upper set, but the number of specimens
collected is no doubt insufficient to detect with certainty any difference
that may exist.

Of the thirty-five species enumerated in the combined lists only twelve
are Recent — that is, 32 per cent. — a percentage which does not differ
appreciably from that of Recent forms in the " shell -bed " of the Porter
River or the tuff-beds interstratified in the limestone as recorded in
my paper on the Trelissick Basin. In this paper it is maintained on
stratigraphical grounds that there is no unconformity between the lime-
stones and the overlying beds yielding the fossils enumerated above, and
this contention is now supported by the palaeontological evidence.

In concluding these notes I have to express my indebtedness to the late
Mr. H. Suter for kindly helping me with the identification of the majority
of these specimens, and for describing the new species of Fastigiella included
in the list.

* Recent.

HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 161

Art. XX. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lyco-
podium : Part HI — The Plasticity of the Sjyecies.

By the Rev. J. E. Holloway, D.Sc.

[Read before the Philosophical Insfiiutc of Ca»(erburi/, ISlh December, 191S ; received
by Editor, 31st December, 1918 ; issued separately, 'JOth June, 1919.]

Plates IX-XIV.

Contents.

Classification ot the New Zealand Species

(ieneral

Species belonging to the Sections Selago and Phlegmaria

Habit and External Form of Plant, and Nature of Strobilus
Stem-anatomy

Prothallus, Sexual Organs, and the Young Plant . .
Species belonging to the Sections Jnvndata and Certiua
Section Inundata

External Form of Plant, and Nature of Strobilus
Stem-anatomv
The Young Plant
Section Cernua

External Form of Plant, and Nature of Strobilus
Stem-anatomv
The Prothallus . .
The Young Plant
Species belonging to the Clavata Section

Externa] Form of Plant and Nature of Strobilus . .
Stem-anatomy
The Prothallus
The Young Plant
Heterophylly
The Plagiotropic Habit
The "Foot"
Summary
Postcript

Page

161
161
165
165
170
175
177
179
179
179
180
180
181
182
185
189
190
191
194
198
203
20.3
204
207
207
215

Classification of the New Zealand Species.

Species belonging to the sections Selago and Phlegmaria —
Lycopodium Selago Linn. L. Billardieri Spring.

L. varium R. Br. L. Billardieri var. gracile T. Kirk.

Species belonging to the sections Inundata and Cernua —

Lycopodium Drummondii Spring. L. ramulosum T. Kirk.
L. laterale R. Br. L. cernuum Linn.

Species belonging to the section Clavata —

Lycopodium volubile Forst. L. densum Labill.

L. fastigiatum R. Br. L. scariosum Forst.

General.

Li the present paper I have gathered together all the facts which I
have observed with regard to the general biology of the eleven species
of Lycopodium which occur in New Zealand.

The New Zealand biological region provides an excellent field for the
observation of the remarkable plasticity of the members of this genus.
L. Cockayne (10, pp. 2-3) has pointed out how peculiarly fitted New Zealand
6 — ^Trans.

162 Transactions.

is for ecological studies. In the particular paper cited he says, " Its
vegetation is still in many places absolutely virgin ; its climate varies
from subtropical to subantarctic ; some parts experience an annual raiii-
fall of more than 500 cm. and other parts less than 30 cm. ; the plant
formations include mangrove swamp, rain-forest, heaths of various kinds,
subglacial fell- and herb-fields, varied associations of rock and debris,
subantarctic southern-beech forest, associations in and near hot springs,
dunes, salt meadows, steppes, swamps, and moors — in fact, for an equal
variety an ecologist would have to explore one of the larger continents
in its entirety. Further, the isolation of the region for a vast period of
time far from any other land surface ; the absence of grazing-animals, the
moa {Dinornis) excepted ; the diverse floral elements (Malayan, Australian,
Subantarctic, &c.) ; the strong endemism ; the numerous small islands
where conditions are simpler than on the larger ones ; and, finally, the
presence of many areas whose vegetation has been changed within a very
few years through the farming operations of the settler ... all these
attributes much enhance the importance of New Zealand for ecological
research."

Some or other of the species of Lycopodimn are found in abundance
in practically every part of this very varied region, and their range of
variability is remarkable. Three species belong to the subgenus Urostachya.
Of these L. Selago Linn, occurs on the mountain-ranges of both Islands,
but more particularly on those of the South Island, both in exposed and
in shady situations. L. variutn R. Br., a terrestrial species which, as will
be shown, has affinities both with L. Selago and with L. Billardieri, is also
to be found throughout New Zealand in open places in high country, and
some noteworthy varieties occur on the subantarctic islands. L. Bil-
lardieri Spring is a characteristic epij)hyte, and occurs commonly through-
out New Zealand in the mixed forest, and more particularly in the western
botanical districts of both Islands where the rainfall is heavy. A small
delicate variety of the last species, named L. Billardieri var. gracile T. Kirk,
grows on tree-fern stems, and is especially abundant in the western dis-
tricts of the South Island. The remaining eight species belong to the
subgenus RJiopalostachya. L. Drummondii Spring, L. laterale R. Br., and
L. ramulosum T. Kirk occur exclusively in swampy or peaty ground, the
first-named in one restricted locality in the far north, and the other two
more widely — L. laterale in the North Island, and L. ramulosum in the
western botanical districts of the South Island and in Stewart Island.
L. cernimm Linn, until lately has been known only from the northern half
of the North Island, where it grows abundantly in Leptospermtim scrub and
in the neighbourhood of hot springs, but it has also recently been found in
a very isolated locality at the northern extremity of the west coast of the
South Island. These four species belong to the Inundata and Cernua sec-
tions of the genus. The four species L. densum LabilL, L. voliibile Forst.,
L. fastigiatum R. Br., and L. scariosum Forst. which belong to the Clavata
section are found typically on open moors or amongst light scrub both at
sea-level and at higher altitudes. Of these, L. densum is more common in
the northern portion of the North Island, where it grows abundantly on
clay lands, whereas L. fastigiatum and L. scariosum are to be found most
abundantly in the mountain regions of the South Island. The two latter,
with L. voluhile, also grow^ luxuriantly on the west coast of the same Island
in localities where the original vegetation has been disturbed by man.
L. voluhile occurs commonly throughout New Zealand in very varied

HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 163

habitats, and more especially in heavy scrub or at the edge of the forest
where it can climb. It will be seen that the eleven species mentioned cover
all of Pritzel's five main sections of the genus. The study of these species
as thev occur in New Zealand under the manifold varieties of climate, soil,
and altitude should present favourable data for the study of the plasticity
of the genus as a whole.

In many parts of New Zealand the vegetation is as yet quite virgin,
but in many other localities the removal of the original forest by felling
and burning, or the disturbance of the soil by alluvial gold-mining, road
and railway cuttings, &c., has thrown open new ground for the various
species of Lycopodium to occupy, and the rapid and luxuriant spreading
of such species as L. cernwum, L. ramulosum, L. laterale, and also L. voluhile,
L. fastigiatum, and L. scariosum, over this new ground through spore-
germination has provided excellent opportunities for the study of their
prothalli and " seedling " forms.

An examination of Baker's, and more especially of Pritzel's, classification
of the species of the entire genus brings into view the wide question of the
relation of elementary species to the species of taxonomy. The main
sections of the genus are well defined, and are in accord with the main
characters of both the gametophyte and the sporophyte generations in the
life-history of the species. In each of these sections certain well-defined
tvpe species are to be recognized, and around each of these type species
are grouped a number of variant forms, having each a more or less
limited distribution, to which specific names have been given. Many of
these latter species will be distinct and true-breeding forms, but probably
there will be found to be instances where a form which bears specific
rank and which is restricted to some particular country or other will prove
to be taxonomically identical with some other form which niay not have
been distinguished by a specific name and which belongs to quite another
biological region, the two forms having arisen quite independ-cntly either as
epharmonic or non-epharmonic adaptations. In his Flora Antarctica Hooker
says, " The importance of the question whether two perfectly similar plants
from remote quarters of the globe are considered as belonging to one species
has induced me to canvass very fully the claims of many supposed forms
of Lycopodiwn to the title of distinct species. In all such cases my first
object has been to determine whether the plant inhabits various inter-
mediate countries. When . . . they are found to do so there need
be little hesitation in referring them, after due examination, to one plant ;
in such instances the supposition of a double creation of the same species,
or of one of them being a variety of some other really distinct plant, which
plant wholly resembles another from other countries would be confessedly
a gratuitous assumption. Wiiere, however, no mtermeuiate stations can
be detected these suppositions become more plausible " (18, pp. 115-17).

The genus Lycopodium has a remarkable distribution, some or other
of the species occurring in every country, in practically all soils, and at
every altitude. The persistence of such a very ancient Pteridophytic family
to the present day, and its wide distribution, is probably due not to the
different sections of the genus being representative of different parts of
the old Carboniferous Lycopods, but rather to the extreme plasticity of
the modern genus as a whole. This plasticity of both the gametophytic
and sporophytic characters is clearly indicated by the study of the species
which occur in New Zealand, and probably also of those in any other region.
To quote L. Cockayne again (10, p. 13), " Nothing has been brought out-

6*

164 Transactions.

jnore clearly by ecological studies in New Zealand than the extreme plas-
ticity of many species and structures, and their rapid response to a change
of environment. This is so great in numerous instances that the idea
of ' normal ' loses its meaning." With regard to the lycopodiums the
experimental alteration of the environment will be a very difficult task to
attempt, owing to the fact that the spores undoubtedly need very particular
conditions for germination, and that the prothallus in many cases takes
many years to grow. Therefore such a paper as the present, which contains
no facts concerning the experimental cultivation of the prothalli and plants,
cannot decide whether or not the varieties of the species described are
actually true-breeding forms, although in some instances field observations
can indicate with some certainty whether or not a particular variety is to
be regarded as a hereditary polymorph. However, the details of field
observations and of the general biology of the species will be of use, it is
hoped, in indicating the degree of relationship of the species inter se, as also
of the difterent sections of the genus to which they belong.

The five main characters in the Lycopodium plant which lend them-
selves well to a study of its variability are (1) habit of growth and external
form, (2) stem-anatomy, (3) nature of fertile region, (4) form and structure
oi prothallus, and (5) form of young plantlet. A natural classification of
the genus will necessarily have to take account of all these characters, and
must not be based upon any particular one. Professor F. 0. Bower's (4)
remarks on this subject may here be quoted : " The true basis for a natural
system of classification is not one or two characters arbitrarily selected,
but as many characters as possible. These characters will be found to
A^ary as we pass from type to type, and the question will arise as to the
relative ages of the extremes in these characters."'

On the whole, the five main sections of the genus are each found to show
very consistently certain characteristic types of structure in each of the five
particulars just enumerated. This would seem to indicate not only that
these sections are natural ones, but also that the characters themselves
are closely interdependent. The stem-anatomy corresponds with the
habit of the plant, as also does the character of the fertile region ; and
the type of prothallus, along with the form of the sexual organs and of the
young plant, varies with the habitat. The genus as a whole being so widely
distributed, and the species possessing such noteworthy powers of being able
to spread themselves in new situations, it is not surprising to find that all
the main characters of the plant are in a highly plastic condition, and are by
no means so fixed in form as would be expected if the difterent sections of
the genus had been separate from a very ancient geological age. There
will thus be instances in which a species, while showing most of the typical
Ci-iafacterisuics Oi tlie section to wnicn ic oeiongs, possesses also in some
one character or other a well-marked peculiarity which will be interpreted
either as an extreme adaptation or as an instance of the retention of a
phylogenetic character.

The New Zealand species afford many instances of interesting variations,
several individual species showing a remarkable range of variability in
the form of such important organs as the prothallus and the strobilus.
Besides the five main characters of the plant which are considered in this
paper there are others, such as the form of the sporophyll, the development
and form of the sporangium, the presence of a mucilage-canal in the leaf,
and the development of bulbils on the stem, which will doubtless be of
importance in indicating in conjunction with the main characters of the

HoLLOWAT. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodiuni. 1(35

plant the natural position in the genus to be assigned to any pai-ticular
species.

The facts brought forward in this paper concerning the varieties of the
New Zealand species and their range of varialiility will tlius have a double
significance : they will provide new inaterial for the study of the question
as to whether or not epharmonic adaptations ever do become fixed and
hereditary; and they will help to indicate the natural relationships which
exist between the different sections of the genus, and between the individual
species which are included within those sections.

Species belonging to the Sections Selago and Phlegmaria.
Hahit and External Form of Plant, and Nature of Strobilus.

It has long been recognized that as regards habit and external form
these two sections are closely connected. The type species L. Selago and
L. Phlegmaria are, of course, very distinct, the former being a short, upright,
little-branched terrestrial form in which there is no differentiation between
fertile and sterile leaves, the fertile zones alternating up and down the
stems with sterile zones, and the latter being a much-elongated, pendulous,
much-branched epiphyte in which there is a special sporophyll formation,
the sporophylls being characteristically confined to the ends of the branches
and the latter appearing as narrow whipcord-shaped strobili. But between
these two extreme forms there are numerous species illustrating every grade
of transition. The species which are grouped by both Baker and Pritzel
under the heading Suhselago possess the sporangia aggregated into quite
easily recognizable terminal spikes which approach the Phlegmaria condi-
tion, although the transition from sterile to fertile leaves and from sterile
to fertile regions of the stem in these species is very gradual. Also, included
in both subsections Euselago and Subselago of Pritzel's Selago section are
pendulous epiphytes and upright terrestrial forms, although on the whole
there is seen to be a gradual transition in the section from the erect terres-
trial form to the hanging epiphyte, this transition keeping pace with the
transition in the fertile region from the Selago condition to the Phlegmaria,
condition. Again, in the Phlegmaria section are grouped forms some of
which are robust and upright in growth, and others tender and pendulous ;
and of these the former possess short thick strobili in which the sporophylls
show a more or less gradual transition from the sterile leaves, and the latter
possess in some cases very distinct long whipcord-like strobili, while in
others the fertile leaves may be not different from the sterile leaves. The
New Zealand species which belong to these two sections present some very
interesting transitions of this nature, which will be instanced.

It will be at once apparent that a classification which is based upon one
character alone — as, e.g., the nature of the fertile region — is bound to be
unsatisfactory. The general habit of the Lycopodivm plant and its external
form must be considered along with the nature of the fertile region, for
these three characters are closely interdependent. That these two sections
together constitute a natural division of the genus seems to be suggested
by the fact that they show certain common growth-features which are
markedly absent from the remaining sections. In habit they are consistently
orthotropic, so that their extent of growth is strictly limited. As a result
of this orthotropic manner of growth it is found that throughout the two
sections the roots are confined to the basal region of the plant, as many as
six or seven roots appearing in the cortex of the stem in a transverse section

166 Transactions.

taken at its base. Again, branching of the stem is dichotomous and in no
case monopodial. Now, the study of the distribution of the species of these
two sections as given by Baker or by Pritzel shows clearly that the terres-
trial forms occur, on the whole, in colder regions and the epiphytic forms in
warmer regions. It would seem, then, that the evolution of the subgenus
Urostachya has been determined largely by climatic conditions. That this
is so is seen to be more probable still from the fact that the external form of
individual species is in a highly plastic condition, varying greatly according
to the habitat. Whether we are to regard the Selago form as having
been derived from the Phlegniaria form, or vice versa, must at present
remain an open question. It will be decided only by a comparative exami-
nation of all the other Lycopodium plant structures, for it involves the
question whether the genus as a whole is to be read as a reduction or as a
progression series. Especially must it be considered in the light of fossil
evidence derived from later geological ages than the Carboniferous. In the
meantime, considering that the more complex members of the genus are
those which show the greatest adaptation to the environment, the onus of
proof must lie upon those who would trace in the genus a general reduction
in form rather than a progression.

In the New Zealand biological region L. varium shows a remarkable
variation in form according to locality.* In Plate IX, fig. 1, are illustrated
three varieties. That named A is a plant which I have collected from the
lower end of the Otira Gorge, where it grows abundantly in clumps on rocks
and other exposed terrestrial positions. The Otira Gorge is situated on the
western side of the Southern Alps, where the climate is exceedingly moist,
at a height of about 1,500 ft. In Part I of these studies (16, pp. 254, 290)
I have described the same form of this species as it occurs in enormous
clumps on the floor of the excessively wet forest of Stewart Island. The
plants are upright in habit, and the strobili characteristically curved. This
habit is very similar to that of L. strictum Baker of the mountains of Mada-
gascar, which is figured in Engler and Prantl (13, fig. 375). The plant of
this particular form A is obviously akin to the typical form of L. Billardieri,
differing from it in the rigid upright habit, the smaller size, and the short
curved strobili, which are not quite so distinct as and are stouter than those
of L. Billardieri. C on the same plate illustrates the same species as it
occurs on the Dun Mountain, Nelson, in a drier, more exposed situation, and
at a height of 4,000 ft. In this case the strobili in their tetragonous region
are only from | in. to 1 in. in length, but the sporangia are continued still
farther down the branches in the axils of gradually lengthening leaves.
B shows two plants of this species as it occurs on the meadows of the
Antipodes Islands. f In this particular variety the plants which occur in
clumps stand only about 5 in. or 6 in. in height. They are very sparingly
branched, and the fertile tips of the branches are very short and grade into
the vegetative regions, as in the case of the form from the Dun Mountain.
As well as these three forms of L. varium I have before me material of the
same species as it occurs on Campbell Island, which was gathered by the
Subantarctic Scientific Expedition of November, 1907. These plants are

* See Postcript, p. 215.

1 1 am indebted to Dr. L. Cockayne for specimens of this form. Spirit specimens
of L. varium from Campbell Island were kindly supplied me by Dr. Cliarles Chilton
from material in the Canterbury College Laboratory. For the herbarium material
of the Macquarie Island species, and also for that of most of the species in my collec-
tion from localities outside the New Zealand biological region, I am greatly indebted
to Ml-. T. F. Cheeseman.

HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 167

only about 6 in. in height, and are very robust in form, with large leaves.
None of the Campbell Island plants which I have seen show fertile regions,
so that I suspect that they are not full-grown plants. They will, how-
ever, undoubtedly be identical with the plant from Campbell and Auckland
Islands described by J. D. Hooker (18). He speaks of it as follows :
" L. varium. in Lord Auckland's Group and Campbell's Island, is one of
the finest of the genus ; it grows nearly erect on the bare ground to a
height of 1 ft. to 2 ft., branching upwards, copiously leafy, with large
spreading leaves, bearing at the apices of the branches numerous pendu-
lous or drooping tetragonous spikes 2 in. to 4 in. long. The stems of this
species are often nearly the thickness of a swan's quill, with spreading
leaves as broad as the middle finger. I have nowhere seen handsomer
specimens of it than this island presents, and more constant ones, for it is
confined to the woods, and does not ascend the hills, neither varying in
the narrow belt it inhabits nor seeking other localities where it would lie
exposed to the influence of exciting causes."

There is also an interesting form from the hilltops of Macquarie Island
gathered by Mr. H. Hamilton, and identified by Mr. T. F. Cheeseman as
L. varium. This is shown in the present paper in Plate IX, fig. 2, B. In
a letter to the writer with regard to this plant Mr. Cheeseman says, " I have
for the present referred the Macquarie Island ])lants to L. varinm because
a few of the specimens have the branches narrowed towards their apices,
with smaller leaves, thus approaching the spicate character of a true varium.
It also differs from typical Selago in the larger, broader, and more coriaceous
leaves. Still there can be no doubt that it comes verv close indeed to
Selago." This plant stands from 4 in. to 6 in. in height, and is copiously
supplied with bulbils, the latter developing in profusion while still attached
to the stem. The presence of bulbils would seem to be an argument in
favour of relating this plant to L. Selago.

From these varieties it will be seen that L. varium stands midway
between L. Selago and L. Billardieri, as Hooker pointed ovit. The external
form of the plant approaches that of L. Selogo in those localities in which
the plant is exposed to a more rigorous climate, and on the other hand
approximates to L. Billardieri in those varieties which occur in less
exposed and shady situations. The character of the fertile region also
varies along with the same change in the environment, the strobilus
being less differentiated from the lower sterile portion of the stem in
those varieties which are found in exposed positions.

It will be convenient next to consider the forms of L. Selago as they
occur in New Zealand. In Plate IX, fig. 2, A, are shown two plants of
L. Selago which were collected by me in damp beech forest at Lake Rotoiti,
Nelson. This is a drawn-out, largely unbranched, rather straggling form,
green in colour, with comparatively large spreading leaves, and is very similar
in appearance to that which is figured in the frontispiece of Professor F. 0.
Bower's The Origin of a Land Flora. The sporangia are very apparent in
numerous fertile zones over almost the entire length of the stems, but the
number of bulbils borne on the stems is quite small. C (Plate IX, fig. 2) is
this species as it occurs in open tussock country on the hills around Cass, in
western Canterbury, at an altitude of 1,500 ft. and over. This is a very
common form in all such situations. It is much shorter and more rigid than
the shade form described above, and is more profusely forked. The leaves
are short, ascending, and densely crowded, giving a cylindric appearance to
the whole stem. In the lower parts of the stem, however, they are larger

168 Transactions.

and spreading, and in those regions the appearance of the stem corresponds
more with the form A. In form C, however, the leaves are generally more
or less reddish in colour, the particular plant figured being a bright golden
red. The number of bulbils present is much greater than in the case of
the forest form, but is not nearly so great as in the case of the Macquarie
Island plant (Plate IX, fig. 2, B). There is a tendency for the sporangia to
be confined to fertile zones in the upper half only of the stems where the
leaves are of the short form. The tips of the branches where the sporangia
are full assume quite markedly a special strobilar appearance, as will be
Been by an examination of C, but this is only a pseudo-strobilar formation.
However, it is instructive to compare the tendency, as seen in this form of
the species, for the sporangia to be confined to the upper half of the stem
with what Cheeseman says (as quoted above) with regard to the Macquarie
Island plant. On the summit of Browning Pass, on the Southern Alps, at
an altitude of 5,000 ft., I collected specimens of L. Selago which showed two
very distinct forms. These are figured in Plate X, fig. 1, A, B. B corre-
sponds very closely with the tussock-country form just described ; but A,
while it is similar to the former in its much-branched nature and short
form, is yet very distinct. It is more flaccid in growth, and the leaves are
large, green, and spreading, as in the forest form of the species. The upper
parts only of the stem are fertile, and there is a very scanty development
of bulbils. Now, the form figured A grew among grass in a small cavity in
the ground partly sheltered by rocks, whereas that marked B grew in a
more exposed position on the surface of the ground, but only a couple of
feet distant from the other. This species must be in a very plastic state to
be sensitive to such a small change in the environment.

To pass now to L. Billardieri. When growing as an epiphyte it presents
a very constant form. The plants occur in clumps and are pendulous, being
in extreme cases as much as 4 ft. or 5 ft. in length. They are abundantly
branched in all regions of the stems, so that the whole clump is quite bulky
in appearance. In the lower parts of the stem the leaves are large and
spreading, but there is a progressive diminution in their size in the ultimate
branches until the strobili are reached. The latter, however, are quite
distinct from the adjacent sterile regions of the branches, by reason of the
fact that the sporophylls are at once broadly ovate in shape, with a well-
marked keel, and are closely imbricating, and are also consistently arranged
in four orthostichies. The phyllotaxy of the strobili, joined with the
presence of the keel on the sporophylls, gives the strobilus a very distinct
tetragonous form. In Plate X, fig. 2, A, is shown a much-forked fertile
branch, alongside of which is the upper sterile part of the stem to which
it was immediately attached. C in the same figure is the fertile portion
of a branch of L. Phlegmaria Linn, from Fiji, from which it can be seen
that the difterentiation between fertile and sterile regions is more distinct
than in the case of L. Billardieri. A specimen of L. Phlegmaria from the
New Hebrides Islands which I have also in my collection shows the same
very sharp distinction between sterile and fertile regions, although in this
Ciase the sterile leaves are tenderer and the strobili are markedly finer and
more thread-like than in the Fiji form. Also in both these tropical forms
of L. Phlegmaria the sporophyll keel is much less developed than in
L. Billiardieri, so that the strobilus is cylindric rather than tetragonous in
form. In the extreme north of New Zealand I have frequently found
L. Billardieri growmg terrestrially amongst Leptospermum scrub on the
kauri-gum lands. These plants are from 2 ft. to 3 ft. in height, and the

Trans. N.Z. Txst.. Vol. LI.

Plate IX.

Fig. I. — A, L. rurium : ( 'ompletc fertile plant from Otira Gorge, Westlp.nd. li, L. rariiun
var. pohirl^ : Two fertile jilants from Antipodes Island. ( ', L. fctrium :
Upper portion of fertile plant from Dun Mountain, Nelson.

Flu. '2. — A, L. iSdayu : Two fertile ])lants of mesophytic variety from Lake Rotoiti,
Nelson. B, L. ? varium : Macquarie Island variety. C, L. Selago : One com-
lileto fertile plant of xerophytie variety from Cass, Canterbury.

Face p. liiS.]

Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. LI.

Pl.\te X.

'- U

A

Fig. 1. — L. Sdago : Variety from Browning Pass, .Soutlicrn Alps, showing two forms.

Fig. 2. — A, L. Billardieri : Strobili (typical form). B, L. BiUardkri var. gracilc : Two
complete fertile plants. C, L. Fhleg nutria : Strobili, from Fiji.

HoLLOWAT. — Studies in fhr New Zealand Species of Lycopodiuni. 169

strobili are shorter than in the epiphytic form and are curved over. On
the whole, I should judge that in form they come nearer to the typical
L. BiUardieri than to L. varium — even to that form of the latter which I
have above described from Otira Gorge and from Stewart Island. Possibly
we are to explain the existence of this terrestrial variety of L. BiUardieri
by the fact that the original epiphytic jjlants were forced to accommodate
themselves to a terrestrial habit through the destruction of the old kauri
forest which took place probably a century or so ago. At any rate, they
represent a variety not far removed from L. BiUardieri, and thus make
almost perfect the chain of forms which can be traced from L. BiUardieri,
and, indeed, from the type species L. Phlegmaria, through L. varium to
L. Sclago.

Perhaps the most interesting variety of L. BiUardieri is the form which
is known as L. BiUardieri var. gracile. This I have found growing very
commonlv on the trunks of the tree-fern Dichonia sqiiarrosa in the coastal
bush in the Western Botanical District of the South Island. This was first
described by T. Kirk (23, pp. 376-77), and is there illustrated. In the
present paper two plants are shown in Plate X, fig. 2, B. This variety
is a very graceful, slender, flaccid plant, and always quite distinct from
L. BiUardieri. It is seldom more than one foot in length, and is sparingly
branched. The fertile leaves show a wide range of variability in form.
In some specimens they are in no wise different from the sterile leaves,
although it must be noticed, as we saw in L. Selago, that the leaves are
always largest towards the base of the stem. In others the fertile leaves
are more bract-like, and the fertile regions then approach somewhat nearer
to the typical L. BiUardieri form. The two plants figured show well this
varying character of the fertile regions, in the case of the plant on the right
the various forms of the sporophylls occurring in intermixed zones on the
same branch. The whole of the upper region of the stem is fertile, there
being no intermixture of fertile and sterile zones as in typical L. Selago,
but the fertile region generally extends to half-way or more down the plant.
[n the figure the limit of the fertile region on the two plants is indicated by
crosses.

Sir Joseph Hooker states both in his Flora Tasmaniae (20, pp. 155-56)
and in his Flora Novae-Zelandiae (19, pp. 52-53) that L. varium, which in
its ordinary state is very distinct, passes into L. Selago on the one hand, and,
on the other, when it inhabits warmer latitudes, grows dependent from
trees, is much branched, more slender and flaccid, and becomes L. BiUardieri.
In his Flora Antarctica (18) he expands more fully this view of a chain of
forms uniting L. Selago through L. varium with L. BiUardieri, drawing his
illustrations largely from the varieties of L. variu7n as they occur in
Tasmania. In the same place he also says that '' the variations from it
[i.e., L. varium.] to Phlegmaria are not obscure, the variations of that plant
being excessive." In his paper cited above T. Kirk discusses the relation
of the New Zealand forms L. varivm., L. BiUardieri, and L. BiUardieri
var. gracile to one another, and concludes, '' I am compelled to consider
L. BiUardieri as merely one of the varieties of L. varium.'" He ])roposes
the following arrangement of the principal forms : L. varium Br. —
(fl) varium (thte ordinarv New Zealand form), (6) polaris (Campbell and
Auckland Island form), (c) BiUardieri, and (d) gracile. This arrangement
certainly has the advantage of emphasizing the natural steps in the
evolution of the forms concerned, although such a form as L. BiUardieri
deserves specific rank. It places the form gracile also in the right position

170 Transactions.

as a variation from varium rather than from Billarclieri. The variety
gracile is always quite distinct from L. Billardieri, and it would be a more
startUng reversion from that species, with its very distinct strobili, than it
would be from L. varimn, which, as has been emphasized above, is not so
far removed from the Selago condition, imless, indeed, we are to take the
view that the whole genus is to be read as a reduction series. It may be
mentioned here that W. Colenso described the form now known as
L. Billardieri var. gracile under the name L. iiovae-zealandicum (11, p. 275),
noting that it grows as an ejjiphyte on fern-trees. He describes it as
" a small species of the Selago section, apparently pretty closely allied to
L. taxifolium Sw.," and he speaks of L. varium as being its nearest New
Zealand congener.

Stem-anatomy.

I wiU now pass on to consider the stem-anatomy of the mature plant
of the New Zealand species of the sections Selago and Phlegmaria. Here
also a high degree of plasticity will, be apparent, although the entire
subgenus Urostachya, so far as it has been investigated, can be seen to be
characterized by a consistent type of both stelar and cortical anatomy
which is markedly distinct from the type of stem-anatomy of any of the
other sections of the genus.

It will be necessary to make first some general statements. Owing to
the plant being orthotropic in growth, of very limited size, and also more or
less branched, it will be clear that in comparing the anatomy of these species
care must be taken to section the different stems in corresponding parts of
the plant. At the extreme base of the stem the stele has not attained its
full development, and is also more disturbed by the giving-ofi of the roots
than it is above. The typical form of the stele is best seen a little higher up
the stem, though still in its lower half. Again, as is well known, the general
configuration of the xylem and phloem groups and plates is by no means
stable, even in a short length of the stem, so that it therefore becomes
necessary to compare a number of sections of the stem of any individual
plant in order to arrive at a fair idea as to its particular stelar anatomy.

I hope to develop in this paper the conclusion, which I arrived at in a
previous paper (16, p. 302), that, notwithstanding the fact that the genus
Lycopodmm includes several distinct types of stelar structure and also
manifold variations of those types, yet the lines upon which the Lycopodium
stele has evolved can be recognized, having been determined for each
natural division of the genus by a combination of the inherited constitu-
tion with the acquired habit of growth of that division. Each of these
natural divisions shows a very distinct type of stelar and of cortical
structure, so that this character becomes of value in checking the con-
clusions arrived at from the study of the other characters as to which
section a particular species should be referred to. The sections Selago
and Phlegmaria possess a stelar structure of the stellate or radial type,
although at the extreme base of a plant this is sometimes obscured. The
protoxylem groups are very massive and the protophloem very small,
and except in the largest forms there is comparatively little wide-sized
metaxylem formed. The phloem also shows very little differentiation of
conspicuous sieve tubes in the smaller species. •

Fig. 1 is a drawing of the stele of the Macquarie Island plant shown
in Plate IX, fig. 2, B, which has been identified by Cheeseman as
L. varium. The massive xylem bands radiate from a common centre,
which is occupied by large-sized metaxylem. The phloem is much less in

HoLLOwAY. — Studies in the N&w Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 171

quantity than the xylem, and the cells composing it are very uniform in
nature. They show abundant contents. The actual protoxylem elements
are, as is the case throughout the genus, situated at the extreme periphery
of the xylem, but the protophloem is not always so 'easily recognized. At
the base of the stem there is a very marked disposition of the xylem and
jihloem in parallel plates. There are three parallel plates of phloem, and
between these two plates of xylem, while outside each of the two flanking
phloem plates there is a single massive xylem group. Whether or not
there is a constant relation subsisting between this parallel arrangement

Fig. ]. — Lycopodium variuin. Transverse section of stele in middle region of stem

of the Macquarie Island variety. x 137.
Fig. 2. — L. rarium. Transverse section of stele in middle region of stem of the
Antipodes Island variety. X 137.
3. — L. varium. Transverse section of stele in middle region of stem of the

Campbell Island variety. X 137.
4. — L. rarium. Transverse section of stele towards lower region of stem of the
Otira Gorge variety. X 90.

Fig,

Fig.

and the forking of the stem in its lower region or the giving-off of roots 1
was not able to determine. There is a very narrow pericycle, two cells only
ill width, while immediately outside it there is a single layer of cells showing
slightly cutinized and red-staining walls. This latter will be the innermost
layer of the small-celled inner cortex, which is here only from two to three
cells in width. The broad middle cortex is composed of large-sized and
thin-walled cells forming a loose spongy tissue with air-spaces, while there is
externally a broad zone of smaller, somewhat sclerenchymatous cells which
practically alone gives to the stem its rigidity.

172 Transactions.

The stele of the Antipodes Island form of L. varium., which is shown in
Plate IX, fig. 1, B, is illustrated in fig. 2. This is practically identical
in all particulars with that of the Macquarie Island plant, although in
fig. 2 it will be seen that the phloem and not the xylem radiates from
a common centre ; also, there is a close correspondence in the nature of
the three cortical zones. There is a decided tendency at the base of the
stem towards the formation of one or more plates of xylem and phloem
extending right across the stele, and lying parallel with each other.
I noticed in my sections that this was most marked at a point where the
stele was about to fork ; but this point needs further investigation.

In fig. 3 is shown the stele of the Camj^bell Island form of L. varium.
It will be remembered that this plant is described by Hooker as the largest
form of L. varium^ seen by him. Probably in the full-grown stem the stele
will be even larger than shown in this figure, but it will be clear from a
comparison with figs. 1 and 2 that with the growth in size of the stele the
simple radial form becomes more complex through the connecting across
of some of the phloem bands or by the isolation of groups of phloem or of
xylem into islands. This is the particular form of L. varium whose stele
is figured in Part I of the present series of papers (16. fig. 87). The
proto])hloem is clearly to be distinguished, and there is a large amount
of phloem. The cells of the latter tissue are uniform in size, but those
which lie immediately adjacent to the xylem bands show abundant contents,
while those placed centrally in the phloem groups and bands are empty.
There is a very distinct pericycle two to three cells in width, the cells of
which show abundant contents. Thus along with the luxuriant growth
of this variety of L. varium there go both a change in the configuration of
the stele and also a tendency towards a greater difi'erentiation of the tissues
composing it. The larger girth of the stenis of this particular variety is due
to the presence of a very wide soft middle cortex. The outermost, usually
thick-walled cortical zone is here very poorly developed, as we would expect
from the habitat of the plant.

The largest variety of L. varium which I examined was that which
occurs at Otira Gorge and Stewart Island (fig. 4). In accordance with the
size of the plant the stele is even larger than that of the Campbell Island
form, and there is a greater disposition towards the formation of phloem and
xvlem islands. The typical radiate or stellate disposition of the vascular
tissues is thus broken up, but that the stem-anatomy is essentially identical
with that of the smaller forms of L. varium is quite clear both from an exami-
nation of it as it occurs in the smaller branches and also from an examina-
tion of the histology of the several tissues of the stele and cortex. In some
of the larger phloem plates in the Otira Gorge plant there is a central row
of cells that remain empty and are in clear contrast with the rest of the
phloem, which flanks the central row, and which shows abundant contents.
This is more marked still in the case of the Stewart Island plant, where the
centrally-placed phloem cells are sometimes comparatively large in size.
This feature is quite consonant with the robust growth of this variety from
the two localities named, and especially with that from the latter place.
The outer cortical zone in this variety is strongly sclerenchymatous. In
both cases a considerable number of roots appear in transverse section in
the middle cortex at the base of the stem, as many as six being noticed
ill some sections.

The stem-anatomy of L. Selago in all the varieties in which it occurs in
New Zealand corresponds closely with that described above for the smaller

HoLLOWAT. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of LvcoiDodium. 173

forms of L. varium. At the base of the stem the xylem and phloem
commonly extend across to form parallel plates. This is shown in fig. 5,
which represents a section of the stele of the xerophytic variety collected
on Browning Pass and illustrated hx Plate B, fig. 1, B. The same tendency
was observed in the basal region of the stem of the shade variety from Lake
Rotoiti. Higher up the stem in this species the arrangement is distinctly
radial. In the case of the shade variety collected from a woody gully in
the neighbourhood of Cass the centre of the stele in the lower part of the
stem was occupied by an island of phloem, as is shown in fig. 6. Fig. 85

Fig. 5. — Lycopodiuni Selago. Transverse section of stele near base of stem of the

xerophytic Browning Pass variety. X 137.
Fig. 6. — L. Selago. Transverse section of stele towards base of stem of the mesophytic

Cass variety. x 1 37.
Fig. 7. — L. Billardieri. Transverse section of stele towards lower unbranched region

of stem of the typical epiphytic form. x 90.
Fig. 8. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Transverse section of stele towards lower region of

stem. X 137.

in Part I of these Studies illustrates the stele of the same material. Higher
up the same stem it was found that sometimes the xylem and at others the
phloem bands are joined up at the centre, there being thus a tendency
towards the temporary formation of one or two more or less jjarallel plates
of vascular tissue. Both xylem and phloem bands and groups are typically
massive. The cortex is differentiated into three zones, the outer being

1 74 Transactions.

more or less sclerenchymatous, the middle delicate and spongy, and the
very narrow inner zone small-celled. The walls of the inner layer of the
latter are usually slightly cutinized. One or more roots are to be seen in
transverse section at the base of the stem of all the varieties mentioned.

On the other hand, the stelar anatomy of the epiphytic L. Billardieri
corresponds very closely with that of the largest varieties of L. varium
described, albeit on a still larger scale. A transverse section of the lower
imbranched portion of the stem of this species is shown in fig. 7. It will
suffice to draw attention briefly to the fact that in this case we have an
extreme illustration of the tendency to the grouping of the xylem and the
phloem in temporary islands and curving bands which is to be observed in
all the large stems of the species of the Phlegmaria section. There is an
extensive development of large metaxylem, and most of the phloem groups
and bands show large centrally -placed empty sieve tubes. The inner layer
of the middle cells of the cortex have obviously cutinized walls, there is a
.spongy middle zone of thin-walled parenchymatous cells with copious air-
spaces, and the epidermal cortical zone is strongly sclerenchymatous. At
the extreme base of a large stem as many as six roots are to be seen in
transverse section in the middle cortex. The root stele as seen in the stem
cortex is of the typical form so consistent right through both Selago and
Phlegmaria sections — viz., a single large crescentic group of xylem with
the bay between the two horns occupied by a single phloem group. The
root originates from the stem stele by the giving-off of two groups of xylem
from two adjacent plates and of a group of phloem from the intermediate
phloem plate, the two xylem groups almost immediately joining to form
the single crescentic group.

The stele of the delicate plant named L. Billardieri var. gracile
corresponds exactly with that of the smaller forms of L. varium. This is
shown in fig. 8. The configuration of the stele is variable, at one time the
plates of tissue being strictly radial, and at another a continuous plate
either of xylem or phloem extending right across the stele. In the lower
part of the stem one or two roots are to be seen penetrating the middle
cortex.

From the study of the chain of forms which occur in New Zealand
connecting L. Selago through L. varium with L. Billardieri it will be seen,
first, that there is a definite type of stelar anatomy characteristic of the
whole series, and, secondly, that a gradual change takes place in the
vascular arrangement from a strictly radial form in the smaller-growing
.species to a form in larger species in which the radial or stellate arrange-
ment is broken up by cross connections, which result in the isolation of
some of the xylem and phloem into islands. Moreover, there is a well-
marked and gradually increasing tendency in larger and larger forms to the
differentiation of the phloem into sieve tubes and phloem parenchyma. This
is quite in accord with Jones's description (21) in his study of the anatomy
of the stems of twenty species of Lycopodium. In the case of L. serratmn
Thunb. and L. reflexum liam., both of which species belong to the L. Selago
cycle of affinity, Jones's figures of the stem stele show that along with the
fact that in general habit the two species named grow more robustly than
L. Selago the arrangement of the vascular tissues is no longer simply radial,
but the general configuration of the more abundant xylem and phloem is
broken up by cross connections, with the consequent formation of phloem
islands. His figures of the stele of the strongly growing epiphytic species
L. squarrosum. Forst., L. Dalhousieanum Spring, and L. Phlegmaria Linn
are closely similar to that of the large New Zealand epiphytic L. Billardieri.

Hollo WAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lvcopodiura. 175

Thus it may be assumed that the general type of stelar structure which
has been shown in the present paper to hold throughout the whole chain
of New Zealand forms holds also for the whole of the subgenus Urostachya,
and that all modifications of this type as seen in the different species of the
subgenus are merely the result of the particular size of each species and
of its habit of growth, which, as has been shown above, varies with the
environment. In his paper cited above Jones arrived at rather different
conclusions. He would classify all the species he examined, in so far as
their anatomy is concerned, into two groups, " the second containing a
number of epiphytic forms, and the first plants with horizontally-growing
stems, while species with erect stems may be included in either group "
(21, p. 31-32). He would link the group of L. Selago with the clavatum
type. My own conclusions, derived from a thorough study of the New
Zealand species, are that, using the sections of Pritzel's classification, which
are certainly more natural than those of Baker, there are three main strains
of stelar anatomy to be traced in the genus Lycopodium, the first of which is
characteristic of the sections Selago and Phlegmaria, the second characteristic
of the sections Inundata and Cernua, and the third of the section Clavata.
This, it seems to me, is in accord with Jones's own figures and descriptions
of the stelar anatomy of the species examined by him, and also goes hand
in hand with the other main characteristics of both sporophyte and
gametophyte.

Prothallus, Sexual Organs, and Young Plant.

In my previous paper already cited (16, p. 264) I have given a short
general description of the external features of the prothallus of L. Bil-
lardieri. Since this was written I have found in the neighbourhood of Hoki-
tika, Westland, an additional large number of specimens of the prothallus of
this species, also a very large number of prothalli of L. Billardieri var. gracile
from two or three localities in the same neighl)ourhood, and about a dozen
specimens of the prothallus of the Otira Gorge variety of L. varium.
Anticipating here what I hope to describe more fully in a further paper with
regard to these prothalli, I may say that they are all closely alike. The
majority of the specimens found of all three species show, on the whole,
longer processes than those figured in the above-named paper, figs. 1-6.
There is in each complete prothallus a more or less bulky central region
on which the sexual organs and paraphyses are formed, and from this arise
the long vegetative processes, which are richly covered with long rhizoids.
The ends of some of these processes sometimes also become more bulky and
bear antheridia. There is, however, a wide range of variability in the
general form of the prothallus, brought about by the greater or lesser
bulkiness of the central region, and also by the varying development of the
processes both as regards numbers and length. In all cases the first stages
in the development of the prothallus from the spore result in the immediate
forn\ation of a cone-shaped tissue-body, which by elongating and thickening
becomes the central portion of the mature prothallus, and on this the
processes arise adventitiously. Thus the first-formed region of the pro-
thallus of these three species conforms to the fundamental structure plan
of the Lycopodhim. prothallus, although the mature prothallus is variable
in form. In the case of all the three New Zealand species mentioned I
dissected out numerous detached prothalliai processes which were evidently
developing independently ; and also not a few of the mature prothalli bore
evidence of the fact that they had originated not directly from the spore,
but from such detached processes.

176 Transactions.

Treub (30) has described the prothalli of the four following tropical
epiphytic species: L. Phlegmaria Linn., L. carinatum Desv., L. nummulari-
folium Blume, and L. Hippuris Desv. Of these four species. L. Phlegmaria
and L. mimmtdarifolium belong, according to Pritzel's classification, to the
Phlegmaria section, L. Hippuris to the Euselago subsection, and L. carinatum
to the Siibselago subsection of the Selago section. They thus cover between
them all the main divisions of the subgenus Urostachya. According to
Treub's conclusions, the prothalli of all these four species are alike, belonging
to that form of the Lycopodium prothallus known as the Phlegmaria type.
That of L. carinatum is exactly like that of L. Phlegmaria. The prothallus
of L. Hippuris, however, is much larger and thicker, and that of L. nummu-
lar if olium very much thinner and more delicate, than that of the type
species.

Miss Edgerley (12, pp. 104-9) has described the prothallus of the New
Zealand species L. Billardieri, and her results are in close accord with my
own. It corresponds very closely with that of L. Phlegmaria both as
regards external form and internal structure. There are, however, two
characteristic differences to be noted. In the case of L. Phlegmaria the
paraphysis is composed of a linear row of as many as a dozen cells, and
it may also branch, whereas in L. Billardieri it is much simpler in form, is
always unbranched, and is generally only three cells in length. Also,
although I have examined a very large number of prothalli of the three
New Zealand species mentioned above, I have never observed any vegetative
buds of either of the kinds described by Treub as occurring freely in the
prothallus of L. Phlegmaria. But in the New Zealand species short club-
shaped richly-stored resting vegetative processes commonly occur.

The prothallus of L. Selago has been described by Bruchmann (5),
and presents some exceedingly interesting modifications of form. Bruch-
mann says (5, p. 85), " This variety of form of the prothalli seems to be
dependent mostly on the soil in which they are produced. The elongated
cylindrical forms are found especially in firm soil, in which they strove
towards its surface mostly in a vertical direction. In loose soil, especially
near the surface, I came across more thickset and flat forms of pro-
thalli." Moreover, besides the subterranean forms of prothallus of this
species, he found some which grew wholly or partly at the surface of the
earth, and which in their upper part showed a thoroughly green colouring.
Such prothalli lived as semi-saprophytes, and by their manner of life formed,
as Bruchmann himself says, " an interesting transition between the assimi-
lating and the merely saprophytic forms " of the Lycopodium prothallus.
Every complete prothallus, whether of the elongated or thickset form,
shows at the original end a tiny, usually bent point, which is the region
immediately developed from the spore, and which develops above into the
cone-shaped tissue-body. The prothallus is abundantly supplied with long
rhizoids ; and many-celled paraphyses, similar to those described by Treub
in L. Phlegmaria, are present, along with the sexual organs. Spessard (25)
has recently given a short account of the prothallus of L. lucidulum as it
occurs in America. It is a cylindrical elongated body, bearing paraphyses
at its uppermost end.

In discussing the different types of Lycopodium. prothallus Lang
(24, pp. 305-6) says with regard to that of L. Selago, " The two forms of
prothallus found in L. Selago give the clue to the more specialized sapro-
phytic types, which in the deeper-growing subterranean species retain the
radial symmetry while becoming modified in shape. On the other hand, the

HoLLOWAY. — Studies ill the New Zealand Species of Ljcopodiuiii. 177

tvpe of prothallus growing in rotting wood has lost the radial symmetry,
and consists of cylindrical but more or less clearly dorsiventral branches."
Curiously enough, Bruchmann himself does not read any signs of the
transition existing between the difPerent types of prothallus from the signifi-
cant variability of that of L. Selago. He gives to the prothallus of this
species the rank of a new type, and concludes also at the end of his paper
(5, p. 108), " From the above facts it follows that the above-treated-of
Lijcopodium groups, characterized especially by their generative generation,
do not stand to each other in near relationship — that is to say, not in such
as one would expect with plant species that are found in the same genus.
This knowledge leads to a separation of the lycopodiums into groups, or,
better still, into genera." However, the facts known concerning the ganieto-
phyte generation of the species which comprise the subgenus Urostachya
undoubtedly point to the fact that the two sections Selago and Phlegmaria
are closely related ; and, seeing that the species L. Selago is probably to
be regarded as the primitive type of the subgenus, if not, indeed, of the
whole genus, it follows that the PJdegmaria type of prothallus, which has
been found to occur in all the main divisions of the subgenus where the
species have an epiphytic habit, has arisen as a modification of the Selago
type in accordance with that habit of growth. One variation in the
prothallus of the New Zealand species, however, is not in accord with
the view that the series Selago-variimi-Billardieri-Phlegmaria represents a
linear series — namely, the paraphysis in the prothallus of L. varium and
L. Billardieri differs markedly in size from that of L. Selago, whereas
the L. Phlegmaria paraphysis is similar to the latter. This isolated fact
would indicate that evolution in the form of the prothallus in the subgenus
Urostachya has proceeded along several parallel lines, and that there are
to be traced, as Lang suggests (24, p. 313), " instances of independent
adaptation to similar conditions."

I am not prepared in this paper to enumerate the variations in the form
of the sexual organs to be observed from a study of the different types of
prothallus as they occur in New Zealand, or to discuss the question of
their modification from the ancestral type in accordance with the form and
habit of the prothallus and sporophyte. Such a study has been suggested
to me by Professor Charles Chamberlain, of Chicago, in a letter in which
he points out the great interest that would come from seeing " what the
resultant between the force of heredity and the influence of environment
might have on the antheridium and archegonium and young embryo," and
I hope to be able at some future time to carry out the suggestion.

The " seedling " plants of the New Zealand species which belong to
these two sections conform to the type described by Treub in L. Phleg-
maria and by Bruchmann in L. Selago. I have noticed no variations in
the New Zealand species. Bower (3, pp. 346-47) has expressed the view
that this type of embryo is the least modified in the genus. However, we
can see in the variation in length of the hypocotyl according to the depth
at which the prothallus grows another indication of the great plasticity of
the Lycopodium plant, which is to be noticed in almost every organ.

Species belonging to the Sections Inundata and Cernua.

In these sections there is less variability to be observed in the habit and
external form in the New Zealand species than in the last two sections.
However, in the gametophyte generation and the young plant there are
certain interesting modifications.

178 Transactions.

The sections Inundata and Cernua comprise comparatively few species.
The species which belong to the former are fairly widely distributed, but
are confined to boggy and marshy habitats. I venture to propose that the
composition of the Cernua section as arranged by Baker, and by Pritzei
following him, should be altered in accordance with our increased know-
ledge of the main characters of the species which have hitherto been
included in it, certain of these species, such as L. densum, L. voluhile, and
possibly L. ohscurum and L. casuarinoides, being removed to the section
Clavata, while L. ramulosum, and possibly also L. diffusum, should be
removed from the latter section and placed near to L. cernuum. This
suggestion has been previously made by me (16, p. 301).

The reason for this is that the cernimm type of prothallus, a protocorm
stage in the embryo plant, and the " mixed " type of stelar structure
undoubtedly go hand in hand, and that although the species which show
these characters do not altogether show a close similarity in general habit
of growth and in external form, yet the presence of the hrst-named charac-
ters should be given chief position in determining the limits of the Inundata
and Cernua sections. Now, Baker and Pritzei in their classifications of the
genus have both described the species L. cernuum and L. densum as upright,
tree-like forms. This is quite misleading. It is only the lateral branches
in these two species which are erect. There is a trailing main stem which
in the case of the former species is snake-like in growth, spreading above-
ground for as much as 12 ft. to 15 ft. in a series of loops, and rooted
to the ground at each node, and in the case of the latter species is a
subterranean rhizome which attains an extreme length of 8 ft. to 10 ft.
The species L. laterale also, which is placed near L. cernuum by Pritzei,
is described by him as nearly or quite erect. This also is an incorrect
description, for whereas the aerial branches are more or less erect, the main
stem is a short much-branched underground rhizome which ramifies exten-
sively in the soil. One rather suspects that the supposed upright habit
of growth of these species has been one of the reasons which led the two
systematists into grouping together such really widely different species as
L. cernuum and L. densum. For the same reason, the great point that is
made by Jones (21, p. 32), that " the fact must not be overlooked that the
banded structure is well marked in the stem of the erect-growing species of
L. ohscurum,'" likewise loses its significance in view of the fact that in this
species also the main stem is subterranean and creeping, and that it
undoubtedly belongs to the Clavata section. The type of prothallus and
voung plant and also the stelar anatomy of L. densum and L. voluhile
indicate that these species, as well possibly as the two species L. ohscurum
and L. casuarinoides, should be included in the section Clavata. This, then,
would leave in the Cernua section only the type species L. cernuum with all
its varieties, and the species L. laterale with its congeners L. ramulosum
and L. diffusum.

The fact that one or two species in the Inundata section — e.g., L. con-
textum Mart, and L. cruentum Spring — show the Selago habit in the fertile
legion is open to various interpretations. Either they have preserved
unaltered a phylogenetic character ; or perhaps it is an indication that
the whole genus is really to be read as a reduction series, and that in these
particular species, as also in the case of the New Zealand plant L. Billardieri
var. gracile, mentioned above, actual transitions in the process are to be
seen. However, isolated instances such as these are not to be interpreted
apart from the main evolutionary tendencies to be observed in the genus
as a whole.

HoLLOWAY. — Studies in fht Sew Zealand Species of Lvcopodiinn. 179

SECTION INUNDATA.

There is only one species in New Zealand which belongs to the Inundata
section, this being L. Drummondii. I have gathered this species on the
sphagnum peat-bog at the outlet of Lake Tongonge, Kaitaia, North Auck-
land, the only locality where it has been found in New Zealand. It will
be convenient to consider this species by itself.

External Form of Plant, and Nature of Strobilus.

In Plate XIV, at C, are shown two small specimens of this plant. It
may attain a length of 7 in. to 8 in., and possess one to three spikes.
The variation in form from the normal which I have observed in this species
is that occasionally the cone, which corresponds in form to that of L. caro-
liniamim figured by Pritzel in Engler and Prantl (13, fig. 378), may be
interrupted. In some plants the lower half of the cone clearly belongs to
the past season's growth, being dark in colour, with empty outstanding
sporophylls, and there is a well-defined demarcation between this and the
farther prolongation of the cone in the succeeding season. Again, in other
instances there is a sterile zone as much as | in. in length separating the
two portions of the cone. In Plate XIV, C, the left-hand specimen
shows an interrupted cone, the point of demarcation between the two
seasons' growth being indicated by a cross. Also, in some specimens the
erect fertile branch which generally appears as a very distinct peduncle
to the cone, with leaves in scattered whorls, shows instead throughout a
greater or lesser portion of its lower region crowded leaves such as are
borne on the trailing stems. Thus, although in this species the fertile
legion is differentiated as a definite club-shaped cone, and even the erect
branch on which it is borne is also differentiated as a peduncle, yet varia-
tions occur which indicate that this character is in a state of plasticity.

Stem-anatomy.

The stelar anatomy in the main stem is shown in fig. 9. It wiU be well
for me to describe this in some detail here, as it is typical for all the New

Zealand species which belong to the
sections Inundata and Cernua. The
general appearance of metaxylem and
protoxylem, as well as the configura-
tion of these tissues, is in striking
contrast to that of the same tissues
in the stem of the Phlegmaria and
Selago sections. In L. Drummondii
the metaxylem is somewhat feebly
lignified, and does not show the pre-
sence of small-sized elements flanking
the larger ones. Also the degree of
coherence of the metaxylem elements

"^Q^

-N^

one to another into plates or groups
is much slighter, so that there is a
very characteristic mixing of the xylem
with the phloem. The protoxylem
elements are much fewer in number in
this species than in those of the Selago and Phlegmaria sections, where
the protoxylem groups are exceedingly massive, but they are so extended

Fig. 9. — Lycopodium Drummondii. Trans
verse section of stele of creepins
stem. X 137.

180 Transactions.

peripherally as to form an interrupted cylinder around the stele. They
are also only feebly lignified. This nature of the xylem and protoxyleni
in L. Drummondii gives a very characteristic appearance to the stele
as a whole, and one which is in marked contrast to its appearance
in the other divisions of the genus. Moreover, it is found, as will be
shown below, not only in the Inundata, but also in the Cernua section.
In the ultimate branches, and in the fertile branch of L. Drummondii,
the configuration of the vascular tissues is more definite, as would be
expected where the vascular elements are much fewer in number, and
the xylem might also be described as radial. The protoxylem groups,
however, are just as much extended peripherally as in the larger parts
of the plant, and the individual elements of the metaxylem are just as
feebly lignified, so that it is apparent that right throughout the plant
a consistent type of stelar anatomy and of vascular histology is to
be found. Jones (21) describes the stelar anatomy of the strobilus of
L. inundatum as radial, and notes that in the branches a striking tetrarch
structure is obtained. In his figure of this he shows both xylem and
protoxylem as being very broad at the periphery. This is very similar
to what I have just described for L. Drummondii. The cortex in
L. Drummondii shows an inner narrow more or less sclerenchymatous
zone which is more strongly developed in the erect fertile branches,
whilst the main cortical tissue consists of large spongy parenchyma with
abundant air-spaces, grading ofl' externally into a very ill-defined epidermis.
I have been unable to find a mucilage-cavity in the leaf such as has been
described in L. inundatum.

The Young Plant.

I was not successful in my search for the prothallus of this species, but
alono- with the adult plants I discovered a large number of plantlets of all
sizes which seemed to have originated vegetatively. All the specimens
which I have preserved are of small size and are unbranched. They very
earlv adopt the plagiotropic habit, and at once begin to develop adventi-
tious roots. Such specimens as are complete show that at the base the
plantlet is prolonged directly into its first root, and that the vascular strand
is continuous throughout this root and the shoot. In one or two instances
I could clearly trace a broken prominence where the shoot passes uito the
root, at which spot presumably the plantlet had been attached to the parent
body. One specimen consisted of a small old piece of rhizome with its roots,
and attached to the rhizome was one of these plantlets showing both shoot
and root. From this specimen, and from indications on many of the others,
I therefore judge that the plantlets are propagative shoots which arise on
the older rhizomes at the season of the year when the latter are beginning
to die oft". They give evidence of no structure which can be likened to a
protocorni. This is noteworthy, for we should rather expect to find that
the embryogeny of this species would show a protocorm stage, and that
even vegetatively produced plantlets would also possess this structure, as
do those of L. ramnlosnm, which I have described elsewhere (17).

SECTION CERNUA.

Belonging to the section Cernva are the New Zealand species L. laterale,
L. cernuum, and probably also L. ramulosum.

Trans. N.Z. Tnst., Vol. LI.

Plate XI.

•''''^ ^

/

I

3

4-

s

A, L. cernuiDn : Fertile branch with one loop of the trailing stem (typical).
B, L. cerinniin : Portion of fertile branch from New Hebrides Islands.

Face p. ISO.]

Trans. X.Z. Tnst.. Vol. LI.

Plate XII.

Fig. 1. — A, L. latcrule. : Portion of underground liiizomc Ijearing fertik^ aerial branches,
slender variety. B, L. ranntlasuiti : Complete fertile jjlant showing rhizomes
and aerial branches.

,„^ ^

Fic. 2. — A, L. colnbUi : IVirtion of lateral branch showing vegetative and fertile regions.
B, L. scartDSiim : Portion of creeDintr stem with two fertile erect branches.

HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodiiim. 181

External Form of Plant and Nature of Strohilus.

Of these L. cernuum is illustrated in Plate XI, A. This figure shows
one loop of the main plagiotropic stem with two nodes on which roots are
borne, and also a single erect fertile branch arising from the upper side
of the main stem. The figure which Pritzel gives in Engler and Prantl
(13, fig. 379, A) of the erect fertile branch of this species shows roots at its
base. This is obviously wrongly figured. The only variation to be noted here
in the external form of the plant is that the New Zealand variety is a very
robust-growing plant, while certain tropical forms of the same species are
much more delicate in all parts of the })lant. This is well seen from a com-
parison of the two forms marked A and B in Plate XI, A being the New
Zealand variety and B a variety from the New Hebrides. S^iecimens from
Fiji and from the West Indies which T have in my possession correspond
very closely with B, and Mr. Cheeseman informs me that this is also the
form of the species as it occurs in Melanesia and north iVustralia. An exami-
nation of Pritzel 's classification of the section Cenma shows that several of
the species included in it are varieties of the typical form L. cernuum..

Two erect-growing aerial shoots of L. laterale, together with a small
portion of the underground rhizome from which they arise, are shown on
Plate XII, fig. 1, A. This illustrates well the form assumed by this
species when it grows amidst tangled vegetation composed of Leptospermum,
Gleichenia, &c. The aerial shoots in such a habitat are very slender, and attain
an extreme height of 2 ft. to 3 ft. It is obvious that such shoots depend
upon the surrounding vegetation to support them in an erect position, and
that therefore they are abnormal in form. The specimen illustrated shows
that the extreme height of these shoots represents the growth of two seasons,
the point at which the second season's growth commenced being indicated
by a cross. When growing on open, boggy hillsides, as it does commonly
on the kauri-gum lands of the Auckland Province, the aerial branches of
this species assume a much shorter, stouter, and less-branched form, and
are reddish in colour. The rhizome, with its vascular tissues, also in this
case is stouter. In this species the cones are typically lateral and sessile,
but they are also sometimes borne on short, leaf-covered peduncles, and
are then to be regarded as terminal This variation in the position of the
cones in L. laterale provides a transition to the next species, in which one
of the chief distinguishing characters is the terminal position of the cones.

The species L. ramulosum is described by Pritzel as occurring in the
New Zealand mountains ; but its habitat is, on the contrary, wet ground at
low altitudes, especially that of sphagnum bogs.* It was first described by
T. Kirk (22) from Westland, and later still from Stewart Island. I have
studied this species in both these districts, and have some interesting varia-
tions to record. A single plant is shown in Plate XII, fig. 1, B. Cheeseman
figures it in his Illustrations of the New Zealand Flora (9), and a plant,
incomplete in its lower regions, is also figured by Kirk (22, pi. 19, fig. B).
In his first description of it Kirk says, " Not infrequently two spikes are
produced from the apex of a branch, and rarely the fertile branch is over-
topped by a luxuriant ' usurping shoot ' so that the spike appears to be
lateral, showing its close affinity with L. laterale, which is still further
strengthened by the fact that in that species the spikes are not invariably
sessile, but occasionally are developed on very short leafy peduncles."
The most obvious point of difference between the two species is the usually
prostrate and densely matted habit of L. ramulosum, and, as will be seen

* See Postcript, p. 216.

182 Transactions.

below, the prothallus of the latter is peculiar. Cheeseman (9, p. 250) states
that L. ramidosum " is more closely allied to the Australian L. cliff usum
than to any other species, principally differing, as Mr. Baker has remarked,
in its entirely terminal spikes, whereas in L. diffusum they are frequently
lateral." It would seem, then, natural to place these three species very
close together in the same section, and not to dissociate them, as both
Baker and Pritzel in different ways have done. When growing on sphag-
num bogs throughout Westland, where it is associated with Gleichenia
cdpina and Cladium teretifolium, the plants are closely intermatted, and
their rhizomes penetrate the peaty soil in all directions. The aerial branches,
by reason of the close nature of the vegetation which covers the ground.
are more or less erect. When it is growing amongst thicker vegetation
on a hillside I have often observed that L. ramidosum occurs in dense,
mossy cushions, the intermatted aerial branches in these cases being particu-
larly well developed and drawn out. On wet soil on which there is a very
scanty mossy covering individual plants of this species assume a habit in
which the branches are closely pressed to the surface, the cones alone
standing erect, almost pedicelled. In this case the rosette form of the
plant, produced by the continued dichotomies of the branches, is very
striking. The main stems show a considerable range of variability in their
form. They may be, in drier situations, above-groimd and green, and
covered with ordinary vegetative leaves, but on the bogs they function
as subterranean rhizomes, white in colour, with scattered scale leaves.
Again, the more deeply penetrating rhizomes in the latter situation are often
quite naked and brown in colour. L. Cockayne (10, p. 17) has made the
mteresting observatio-n that the cones of L. ramidosum " are absent or
scantily produced in shade plants, but extremely abimdant in those growing
in bright light." He has suggested that this is a point which would lend
itself well to experimental investigation.

It is apparent, then, tiiat the habit of L. ramulosum is very variable,
although in its typical form on sphagnum bogs it is quite characteristic.
The external form of L. laterale also is in a plastic state, and the position
of the cones in neither species is quite fixed. Thus in res})ect of these
characters they are more or less closely allied, and also their affinity with
the Australian L. diffusum seems to be clear.

Stem-anatomy.

In describing the characteristic nature of the vascular tissues of L. Drum-
mondii I indicated that this mixed type of stele with the very extended
protoxylems is that also of those New Zealand species of Lycopodium which
belong to the section Cernua. It is very distinct from the first type
described in this paper, which, as I have tried to show, holds, in spite of
the many modifications in the external form of the plant, throughout the
subgenus Urosfachya, and also from the third type, which is characteristic
of the Clavata section. It therefore should be given prominence to, along
with the character of the prothallus and of the embryo plant in the sections
Inundata and Cernua, as a character to be taken into account in a natural
classification of the genus.

In fig. 10 is shown the vascular cylinder of the main rhizome of L. cernuum.
It will be seen both from the amount of vascular tissue and from the scale
of the magnification that the stele of this species is an exceptionally large
one. For that reason it shows even more clearly than do the other species
the nature of the mixed type of structure. Both metaxylem and phloem

HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 183

are much broken uj) into curving bands and isolated groups, and the
protoxylem is markedly extended around the periphery of the stele. The
protoxylem and metaxylem elements are poorly lignified. The metaxylem
elements are large and are all of one size, there being no small flanking
tracheides present. In fig. 10 it is apparent at several places that the
metaxylem elements are separating from each other. In accordance with
the larger size of the phloem groups there is a distinct differentiation
between centrally placed large phloem elements and flanking phloem paren-
chyma, the latter in the region immediately behind the apex of the rhizome
showing abundant contents. In the nature of its cortical tissues this species
differs considerably from L. Drummondii. There is an outer zone of scleren-
chyma which includes the epidermis, while the rest of the cortex is thin-
walled but not of a spongy nature. Immediately surrounding the vascular
cylinder the cortex is small-celled, as will be seen in fig. 10. The pericycle

Fig. 10. — Lycopodium cernuum. Tra^nsverse section of stele of main trailing

stem. X 60.
Fig. 11. — Lycopodium laterale. Transverse section of stele of rhizome of strongly

growing variety. X 90.

in the mature stem is very indistinct, but in the region immediately behind
the rhizome apex it is seen to consist of a single layer of cells adjoining the
protoxylem, showing abundant cell-contents. The cells of the innermost
cortical layer show quite distinctly thickened angles : this will be the
endodermis.

Fig. 11 is that of the stele of the more strongly growing variety of
L. laterale. This is somewhat larger than that of the tall slender form, but
otherwise does not differ from it. Behind the stem-apex the peripherally
extended nature of the protoxylems is very marked, but in the mature stem
it is not quite so clear, owing to the fact that the smallest protoxylem
elements are very feebly lignified, and also become crushed, and so are
not always easily recognized. The vascular tissues are quite clearly of the
mixed type. The cortical tissues are very similar to those of L. Drummondii,

184

Transactions.

there being an inner slightly sclerenchymatous zone, which is more strongly
developed in the aerial branches, merging outwards into a thin-walled
spongy tissue which is continued right up to the epidermis. In dissecting
out the rhizomes of this species from the soil and cleaning them it was
noticeable how very easily the white spongy outer cortex could be stripped
away from the central core. In the ultimate branches I found a tetrarch
condition of the stele. The four extended protoxylems and the four
compact groups of phloem which alternate with them are very distinct,
but the few large metaxylem elements, even in these small branches, are
continually changing their disposition.

Mention has been made of the two kinds of underground stem of the
species L. ramulosum. Those which penetrate the soil most deeply are
brown in colour and smooth, being devoid of scale leaves. They are thicker

than the white scaly rhizomes,
and their vascular cylinder is
proportionately larger. Fig. 12
shows the stele of the larger kind,
while the figure given in Part I
of these Studies (16, fig. 94) is
that of the smaller form The
cortical tissues differ consider-
ably from those of L. laterale.
There is an inner, thin-walled
zone, which in the large more
deeply growing rhizomes is re-
latively wide and contains much
starch, a median sclerenchy-
matous zone, and an outer, thin-
walled region in which there
are abundant air-spaces. The
vascular tissues correspond in
nature and arrangement to those

Fig,

12. — Lycojwdivm ramulosum. Transverse

section of stele of deeply penetrating

rhizome. X 137.

j^ -

of the other species in this
section of the genus. Practically surrounding the main vascular tissues
tliere is a ring of flattened and distorted cells. In sections of the mature
rhizome it is difficult to determine the exact nature of this ring, but from
a study of sections taken immediately behind the apex of the rhizome
it is clear that the original protoxylem has contributed to the greater
part of it.

It is evident, then, that the vascular anatomy of the four New Zealand
species described above as belonging to the sections Inundata and Cernua
belongs to a common type which is best described as '' mixed," this
being seen best in L. cermaim. In all these species, although the habit
is plagiotropic, branching takes place all around the stem, so that no
directive tendency is present towards a dorsiventral disposition of the
vascular tissues as in the species of the Clavata section. The mixed nature
of the vascular tissues, however, is not merely the result of the all-round
branching ; it is present from the early seedling stages of the plant, and
goes along with certain characteristic features in the histology of the xylem
and protoxylem, and it is best regarded as part of the inherited constitu-
tion of this division of the genus. The only variation in the nature of the
vascular tissues is that in L. cernumn the phloem shows considerable
differentiation, this arising probably simply from the large size of the

HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodiuin. 185

plant and of its vascular tissues. The stem-anatomy of only one other
species belonging to these two sections has been examined — viz., that of
L. inundatum, described and figured by Jones (21). His figure of the tetrarch
structure and broad protoxylems in a small branch of this species corre-
sponds very closely with what I have observed in the corresponding parts
of the plant of all four New Zealand species. The cortex in the New
Zealand species varies very markedly. The position of the sclerenchyma
zone in L. cernmim is outermost, in L. ramulosum it is median, and in
L. Drummondii and L. laterale it is innermost. There is a distinctly spongy
region of the cortex in the three latter species which is quite in accord
with the nature of their habitat. The external position of the sclerenchyma
in the stems of L. cenumm is perhaps to be explained by the fact that these
are above-ground, and that this species seeks drier situations than do the
other three. It is not quite so clear, however, what is the particular
physiological reason for the median position of the sclerenchyma in the
cortex of L. ramulosuw unless it be because in this species the innermost
cortex is used as a storage zone.

The Prothallus.

The prothallus of these two sections, so far as it is known, belongs to the
L. cernwim type, and this is one of the main arguments which determines
that the two sections together form one of the natural divisions of the
genus. However, the prothalli of all the species that have been examined
show striking variations from the typical form, and in the case of the three
New Zealand species, L. cernuuni, L. laterale, and L. rarmdosimi, there is
a wide range of variability in the form of the prothallus in each individual
species. In fact, in these species there is a far greater degree of plasticity
shown by the gametophyte generation than bv the matiire sporophyte.
This is to be expected, for whereas on the one hand the species are limited
in their distribution, and hence the sporophyte is under a comparatively
constant set of external conditions, on the other hand the prothallus,
being very delicate in nature and combining the chlorophyll condition
with the saprophytic, must necessarily show considerable variation from
the typical form in accordance with the varying depth at which the spores
germinate. In these two sections of the genus, in contradistinction to
what obtains in the other sections, the prothallus lasts for only one season.
The spores germinate only in consistently damp, loose soil, more especially
that which possesses a thin covering of short moss. Being partly dependent
upon the presence of light, they cannot germinate at any great depth in
the soil, but yet amongst the moss and other delicate debris of vegetable
matter there is, of course, a considerable range of variation in the conditions
under which the development of the prothallus must take place.

The prothallus of L. iniindatmn has been described by Goebel (14).
This corresponds fairly closely with the L. cernuum type. Treub (30) has
described the prothallus of L. salakense, a species which is apparently a
variety of L. cernuum. This he says belongs to the cernuum type, but it is
not so closely similar to it as is the prothallus of L. inumlatiim . Several
filaments may develop from the primary tubercle, one of these afterwards
developing into the main prothallus-body. There are no foliaceous lobes
])roduced on the crown.

Treub has given a very full account of the prothallus of L. cernuum.
I have not had access to his original papers, and hence am not aware
whether or not he has described in the case of any of his specimens the

186 Transactions.

variations in structure which I have found in the prothallus of this same
species as it occurs in New Zealand. In a previous paper (16, p. 266)
I noted that the length of the shaft varies greatly in the case of different
individuals, it being comparatively long in some and in others almost
absent, and stated that this arose simply from the fact of the variation in
depth at which the spores germinate. With regard to the internal struc-
ture of the prothallus, I must anticipate here what I hope to describe more
fully in a future paper. The lower primary tubercle not infrequently con-
sists of two distinct swellings, and not one only. The extreme basal end of
the prothallus constitutes the original tubercle, but the second swelling is
separated from this by a slight constriction and occupies a position higher
up one side. In some prothalli the development of this second laterallv
placed swollen region gives a somewhat lopsided appearance to the prothallus.
This will be seen in fig. 21 of the paper cited above (16), and also in fig. 13,
which is that of a similar prothallus of L. laterale. In some of the short
prothalli the two swellings appear side by side, together forming the basal
part of the prothallus, the crown of lobes arising from both together : this,
of course, serves to impart a thickset appearance to the prothallus as a
whole. Contrary to what botanical writers, quoting from Treub's original
papers, have stated with regard to the internal structure of the primary
tubercle in L. cernuum, I find that a well-marked differentiation of fungus-
inhabited tissues is there to be seen, though, of course, to a much less
extent than in the prothalli of the clavatum or coniplanatum, tvpes. The
outer peripheral layer of cells is for the most part only one cell in thick-
ness, and this contains the spherical coils of fungal hyphae. Those cells
of the interior of the tubercle which immediately abut on the peripheral
layer are very distinctly elongated at right angles to the latter. They
are narrow, and in transverse section are roundish in outline, and in
this layer the fungus occupies a position in the cell-walls. In fact, this
layer may be compared to the palisade cells in the vegetative part of
the clavatum or complanafum prothallus. In some cases I noticed that
the cells of this interior tissue contained abundant small bodies which
I took to be starch-grains. Apart from those instances in which there is
a second swollen fungal region occupying a lateral position, I have not
observed the fungus penetrating into the region of the shaft. The two
fungal tissues occupy the whole of the first-formed tubercle, but in the case
of the second swelling they are, as I have said, laterally placed. If now
prothalli of this species occurred in which the fungal regions extended in this
way farther up the main body of the prothallus, not only in one localized
position but uniformly all around it, leaving a central core of undifferentiated
cells, we would have a condition approaching that of the prothallus of
L. complanatnm in its basal region, as described by Bruchmann. I have
not observed such cases in the prothallus of this species, bu.t what has just
been described becomes of some significance in this connection when com-
pared with the further variations in the prothallus of L. ramulosum to be
described below. In the case of the conrplanatinn and clavatum types of
prothallus the main characteristic is that the fungal tissues have become
so important a part of the prothallus-body that their development is not left
to the mere spreading of the fungus to additional regions of the prothallus,
or to the successive infection of those regions from without through the
rhizoids, as is obviously the case in L. cernuum. and L. laterale, but proceeds
uniformly from the meristem, the vegetative part of the prothallus con-
sisting of one large swelling and not several small distinct ones. On

HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 187

re-examining my serial sections for the purpose of this paper I found that in
one or two instances the second fungal swelling was associated with the
development of assimilating lobes arising laterally on the prothallus-shaft
and on the opposite side of the swelling. The prothallus of L. cernuum is
thus in a somewhat plastic condition, and the variations in form which are
to be observed make it easier to institute comparisons between this type of
prothallus and those of the other sections of the genus.

In my previous description of the prothallus of L. laterale (16, p. 265)
I noted that, as in L. cernuum, the shaft is variable in length, the shorter
prothalli having thus a somewhat solid, compact appearance, and that the
leafy expansions on the crown of the prothallus of L. laterale are less lobe-
like and more filamentous than in the case of the other species. Another
character noted was that these assimilating outgrowths occur also normally
in a lateral position on the shaft of the prothallus. The presence of a long,
narrow, club-shaped process attached to the tubercle of two of the prothalli
was also mentioned, and I was inclined to regard this as the actual first-
formed portion of the prothallus and not as a branch arising from the
'■ primary " tubercle. As in the prothallus of L. cernuum, the fungal zone
may extend for a certain distance up one side of the shaft, giving rise to
a second swelling distinct from the lower one. In none of my preparations
did I find that the interior cells of the swollen areas which adjoined the
fungus-infected peripheral cells were so clearly differentiated as a distinct
fungal tissue as they are in the largest prothalli of L. cernuum. The fungus
extends between these cells, in one particular instance as far as into the
lower region of the shaft. These cells have without doubt a definite arrange-
ment, with their long axes at right angles to the peripheral layer, but in
longitudinal and transverse section they appear little differentiated in form
from the other cells of the shaft. Thus the fungus zone in this species is
of the same nature as that in L. cernuum, but it shows a somewhat less
degree of differentiation of its tissues. I found one very young prothallus
of this species entangled closely amongst the rhizoids of an older prothallus.
It consisted of a filament nine cells long, the older half of this prothallus
being but one cell wide, and the younger half two cells wide. At the base
of the prothallus was to be seen the original spore, and four or five rhizoids
were borne on the older cells. There was no suggestion of a primary
tubercle, nor was the presence of a fungus to be seen, but all the cells
showed numerous chloroplasts. This young prothallus may be compared
with those of the same early stage in L. ramulosum, described below.

The prothallus of L. rainulosum is very variable in form (16, pp. 269-71),
much more so than that of the other two species. The long-drawn-out
forms Jiave several swollen fungus-infected areas, bearing rhizoids, some
of the largest prothalU showing as many as five such areas. Each of these
fungus swellings has usually a group of assimilating lobes associated with
it, and at the base of the lobes antheridia or archegonia are developed.
Not infrequently the form of the prothallus is strangely altered owing to
the fact that a somewhat massive body of tissue is formed at a place where
a group of lobes is associated with a fungus area. Generally the last-
formed uppermost part of the prothallus is the bulkiest, but two or even
three such masses of tissue are often to be seen in these long-drawn-out
forms of prothallus. In every case in which a young plant was attached
to a prothallus it had developed from the uppermost of these bulky regions.
One or two prothalli were found which had branched at the point of a
swollen fungal region, the two branches being equally developed. As well

188 Transactions.

as the long-drawn-out forms there are short, comparatively massive indivi-
duals. These correspond to such a group of lobes with its associated fungal
region as has just been described, the development of the massive body of
tissue having proceeded to an unusual extent. Sometimes it is seen that
in these massive prothalli there has been an original first-formed, long-
drawn-out portion which has withered away, but always the subsequent
growth of the prothallus is confined to increasing the massiveness of the
main tissues and does not result in any further extension in length. In
many cases, especially at the actual crown of the prothallus, the group of
lobes has withered, there being a consequent browning of the upper surface
at this point. In some instances, instead of lobes being present, there are
only feebly developed warty excrescences. Again, in other instances the
lobes are fairly thick in form. Serial sections of the prothalli show that
the fungus swellings are all identical in nature and correspond \ery closely
with what is found in the prothallus of L. laterale. The peripheral cells
contain the spherical masses of hyphae, while those in the interior of the
swelling show the fungus only within the cell-walls. These latter cells have
not assumed such a definite tissue-form in accordance with their particular
function as is sometimes to be seen in L. cernuuni. The initial stase in the
formation of a fungus area is sometimes to be seen, one or two epidermal
cells showing the presence of the fimgus, but no swelling having yet taken
place. In not a few prothalli, both of the massive and of the long-drawn-
out form, the actual first-formed region nearest the original spore was to
be seen. Moreover, several very young prothalli were found. There is
first a longer or shorter filamentous stage, in which the young prothallus
is only one cell wide, after which it proceeds gradually to increase in width
as it lengthens. The prothallus is from the first quite green in colour, and
infection by the fungus seems to take place subsequently to these early
stages of growth. However, in one or two prothalli of the massive form I
noticed that the original but very short filament passed immediately into
the bulky fungus-containing tissue, the complete prothallus having very
much the form of an inverted cone with the spore filament at its apex.
The resemblance of this to the clavatum type of prothallus is obvious.

The prothalli of the three New Zealand species which belong to the
section Cernua are thus seen to be in a condition of great plasticity. The
main reasons for the modifications of the typical cernuum form seem to be
the varying depth at which the spores germinate, together with the extent
of infection by the fungus element, this resulting in all three species, and
especially in L. ramulosum, in a form of prothallus more or less elongated,
which develops rhizoids at intervals along its length, a form which may be
well compared with that acquired by the humus-growing, wholly sapro-
phytic prothalli characteristic of the Phlegmaria type. The various forms of
the prothalli of L. Selago and L. ramulosum show how it is possible for both
the much-branched Phlegmaria type and the compact, more massive clavatum
or complanatum type to arise as modifications of the original form. The
prothalli even of L. cernuum and L. laterale give indications of this. This,
taken in conjunction with the fact of t\\e great plasticity of the species as
seen in all their main characters, and the occurrence of numerous transi-
tional forms both between one species and another and also between one
type and another, indicates that the main natural divisions of the genus
correspond with its biological distribution, and that the different sections
into which the species are classified by systematists bear a certain definite
relationship to one another. Only a comparative examination of the chief

HoTiLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 189

characters of both gametophyte and sporophyte generation can show which
particular characters are more fixed than others, and so indicate what is
the nature of this interrelationship between the sections of the genus.

The Young Plant.

In all the species belonging to the two sections Inundata and Cernua
whose embryogeny is known the embryo plant passes through a protocorni
stage. Goebel has described this in L. inundatum, and Treub in L. cermmm.
In two previous papers (15, 16) I have described the protocorm of
L. laterals, and in the second of these papers I have given a fairly complete
account of it not only in this species, but also in L. cernuum and L. ramidosum.
Chamberlain (7) has also published an accoimt of the protocorm of L. laterale.
In Part II of these Studies (17) I have demonstrated the presence of a
protocorm in adventitiously developed plants of L. cernuum and L. ramu-
losum, and have shown that the large protocormous rhizomes of the latter
species can branch, give rise to two or even three stems, bud off bulbils,
or by partial decay break up into a number of distinct portions, each of
which can develop into a young plant. Goebel also has described adventi-
tious protocorms in L. inundatmn. There will be no need for me to repeat
here the description of this organ as it occurs in the three New Zealand
species, beyond pointing out the facts relating to its variability in form.

In the case of L. cernuum I have shown (16, pp. 283-84) that usually
the growth in size of the protocorm ceases after the first three or four
protophylls have been formed, but that in some instances a certain amount
of lateral growth takes place, as many as seven protophylls being formed
along the top of the extended protocorm before a stem-axis is initiated.
Since that account was written I have examined another colony of young
plants of L. cernuum, several of which showed very large protocorms quite
comparable in size to the largest of those of L. laterale found by me. It is
thus apparent that whereas under normal conditions this peculiar structure
does not assume a large size in L. cernuum, yet under certain conditions,
occasioned probably by a dry season, it may function for a much longer
period and assume a much larger size.

In both L. laterale and L. ramtdosum the protocorm is also very variable
in size, although it is much larger than it usually is in L. cernuum. In the
paper quoted above (16. pp. 277-83) I have set myself to show that the
large size of this organ in L. laterale, and also in L. ramidosum, is merely
a special adaptation suited to carry the young plant over the dry season.
In all these New Zealand species which possess the delicate short-lived type
of prothallus the young plants are formed during the spring and early
summer. During the dry months of midsummer probably the majority
of them die, except those in exceptionally favourable situations, or those
whose protocormous rhizome has become sufficiently tuberous to be able
to withstand a period of drought. Then, as the wet season comes round
again, growth is resumed and a stem-axis is initiated.

According to this view the protocorm is a plastic organ whose form
and importance is mainly dependent upon external conditions. This also
suggests that the protocorm in general, as it occurs throughout the sections
Inundata and Cernua, is a physiological specialization. This is the view
taken by Bower (3, pp. 225, 355). Goebel also (14) was not able to see
any phylogenetic significance in this organ.

Thus there are certain consistently present characters in these two sections
which indicate that they together form a natural division of the genus

190 Transactions.

clearly marked off from the remainder. These characters are — a plagio-
tropic habit of growth with all-round branching of the trailing stem ; a
mixed type of stelar anatomy with exceedingly broad protoxylem groups ;
a delicate short-lived surface-growing prothallus ; and a protocorm stage
in the embryogeny. It may safely be assumed that a type of prothallus
which possesses chlorophyll and is largely self-nourishing is less modified
from the original type than are those which are wholly saprojihytic in mode
of nutrition. This assumption is made by most writers on the subject. It
is not, however, necessary to assume that the delicate nature of the cernuum
type of prothallus is also a primitive character. Such a type of prothallus
demands a damp habitat. Another consecjuence of the delicate nature of the
prothallus is that it becomes necessary for the young plant to quickly gain
independence and establish itself, and hence probably arose the protocorm
as a physiological specialization. Such damp situations as are suitable for
the development of this type of prothallus are liable to seasonal periods of
drought, and hence the protocorm is further developed as a resting tuber.
The mixed type of stelar anatomy is initiated by the fact that in the very
young plant the leaf-trace system precedes the formation of the cauline
cylinder, and thus the stelar tissues show from the first a loosely aggregated
character. Moreover, in the older stems the branching of the stele in all
four directions tends to continually disturb the tissues. However, this is
not sufficient to account for all the peculiar features in this t}'pe of stele,
which would seem rather to be an expression of the inherited constitution
of this division of the genus. The plagiotropic habit and unlimited growth
of the plant are a modification suited to assist it to spread over wide areas,
and are able to counterbalance as means of vegetative propagation the
uncertainties attached to the sexual reproduction of these species. Thus all
these characters are largely dependent upon the environment, being under
its direct influence, and with respect to them the different species show a
high degree of plasticity.

Species belonging to the Clavata Section.

I have already enumerated certain reasons for removing the species
L. densum, L. volubile, and possibly also L. obscurum and L. casuarinoides,
from Pritzel's Cernua section, and placing them instead in the Clavata
section, and for removing the species L. dijfusum and L. ramulosum from
Pritzel's Clavata section and placing them in the Cernua section. Such a
rearrangement of these species would seem to be in accord with the facts
known concerning their main gametophytic and sporophytic characters.

This section is marked by a number of very definite characters. The
habit of growth of the species is strongly plagiotropic — indeed, so much,
so that several show a bilateral structure in the leaf-arrangement, with
heterophylly, and, at least in the New Zealand species, the branching is
always in the plane of the ground, and not all round the stem as in the
species of the last section. The fertile regions are upright club-shaped
cones borne on distinct pedicels, or numerous short cones at the tips of
the densely-branched aerial branches, except in the case of L. volubile,
where the scrambling habit of the plant has probably been accountable
for a noteworthy modification. The stelar anatomy shows a characteristic
dorsiventral disposition of parallel plates of xylem and phloem. The
prothallus is large, compact, and deeply buried, and the young plant pos-
sesses a strongly developed foot. These characters clearly mark off the
Clavata section from the other sections of the genus. It is, of course, obvious

HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the Sew Zealand Species of Lycopodiuni. 191

that these same characters are under the direct influence of the environ-
ment, even more so than in any of the other sections, and thereiore we
may expect to find not only variations in form and structure in the species
themselves, but also indications that the section itself includes more than
one strain. This seems to follow, for example, from the fact that there
are two types of prothallus, and that, in the case of two of the New Zealand
species, along with these types of prothallus there go two distinct types
both of heterophylly and of strobilus-form.

External Form of Plant, and Nature of Strobilus.

L. volubile has a scrambling and climbing habit, and its form and
structure show various modifications in accordance with this. The follow-
ing quotation is from an unpublished work by L. Cockayne on the Vegeta-
tion of New Zealand : " L. volubile is an interesting example of the transi-
tion of a creeping ground - plant through a winding liane, by way of a
scrambling plant. This plant, as a creeper, in many places extends its
slender, woody, stiff stems far and wide, rooting in the soil and raising
them unsupported for 60 cm. or so into the air. Thus a prop may be gained,
and, this happening, the method of climbing depends upon the nature of
such. If the support be twiggy the liane merely scrambles through the
branches, its lateral branchlets at about a right angle to the axis, the
sporophyll-bearing branches and the hook leaves of the stem all functioning
as climbing-organs, the last-named also aided by the flexuous stems. When
the support, however, is smooth and with few projections the stem of the
Lycopodimn twines strongly, gripping the support tightly." In localities
where this species is growing in luxuriant masses upon and amongst low
vegetation, one frequently sees the growing shoots standing erect and
unsupported to a height of as much as 3 ft. to 4 ft , the flexible ends of
the shoots being curved similarly to those of a hop These shoots are thus
able to lift themselves up in a vertical direction and so reach the lowest
branches of small trees. Sometimes two or even three neighbouring shoots
in such situations will twine tightly round each other, and so lift them-
selves up into the air to an even greater height. Although somewhat
slender, the stems and branches are exceedingly rigid and strong, owing
to the fact that the whole of the cortical tissue of the stem is strongly
selerenchymatous. When growing on the ground the characteristic foliage
of L. volubile is luxuriantly developed, such specimens being commonly
used for decorative purposes. When climbing, however, this foliage is
generally very poorly developed, and frequently is entirely wanting, the
branches being present simply as short peg-like projections scantily
clothed with the acicular scale leaves. The hooks are present on all
rapidly elongating stems and branches that are bare of the usual dorsi-
ventral foliage. The hook is formed by a short downward prolongation
of the base of the ordinary acicular scale leaf. They point backwards from
the elongating region of the stem, and, when the stem is scrambling or
twining, serve to take the weight of its lower parts.

I have elsewhere (1-5, p. 366) described the characteristic heterophylly
of this species. Not infrequently in sheltered places throughout Westland
I have come across mature plants in which the dorsal and ventral scale
leaves, which are normally very reduced in size, are longer and more spread-
ing, the laterally spreading large leaves at the same time "tending to the
acicular form. This is of the nature of a reversion foliage, and such plants
have an exceedingly beautiful, feathery appearance. When the plants

192 Transactions.

are scrambling over scrubby vegetation the adventitious roots are some-
times of great length. They may be as much as 3 ft. to 5 ir. in length, and
a very characteristic feature during the wet season is the thick envelope
of mucilage which covers from 3 in. to 12 in. of the growing root-tip before
it reaches the ground. This mucilage envelope also occurs to a much less
extent on the exposed root-tips of such other species as L. cernuum, L.
densum, L. scariosum, and L. fastigiatum. The spikes are of a very charac-
teristic form, which may be regarded as a direct adaptation in accordance
with the scrambling habit of the plants. They are produced only when the
plant can raise its lateral branches to a considerable height, and then the
ultimate twigs on the entire terminal portion of such a branch become
developed as long cylindrical pendulous strobili. Plate XII, fig. 2, A, shows
a portion of such a fertile branch, at the point where the ordinary foliage
passes into the fertile region. The terminal portion of the branch has
been broken off at the point marked with a cross. Frequently on such
branches fertile regions are intermixed with sterile, and tnce versa, as
also will be clearly seen in the figure. A close comparison may be insti-
tuted between the fertile region of this species and that of the pendulous
epiphytic species of the Phlegniaria section, the obvious deduction being
that in both cases the form of the strobilus is simply the result of the
pendulous habit, and that the Lycopodium strobilus must be in a very
plastic condition for this habit to appear in the Clavata section.

The main stem of L. densum is subterranean, but sometimes — as, for
example, at the edge of a bank — it emerges from the ground and continues
its growth, becoming green in colour. The aerial branches arise right and
left of the main rhizomes, and at once bend sharply upwards, emerging
from the ground with a stiff, erect, dendroid habit. There are three very
distinct forms of aerial branches, which take their character from the
nature of their foliage. These are shown in Plate XIII, at A, B, and C, that
lettered B showing its own particular form of foliage in the upper portion
of the branch and the foliage of form A in the lower portion. These .three
varieties of foliage are almost invariably quite distinct from one another,
and do not grade into one another, being confined for the most part to
separate branches. Where more than one variety does occur on the one
branch, as in the specimen figured, the two forms nevertheless keep quite
distinct. Now, all three varieties of foliage are commonly to be met with
in practically every locality where L. densum occurs, growing side by side,
so that it is obvious that the different forms are not by way of being
adaptations to the environment. It would seem, then, that they are
hereditary polymorphs, true-breeding races which possibly have arisen by
mutation, and which hybridize. These three forms are by no means
plastic in their nature, although individual twigs may very occasionally be
observed which seem to show gradations in their foliage. When growing
amongst tangled vegetation, more especially in hollows, the aerial branches
may attain a great height. They are then very scantily branched ; indeed,
I have seen aerial stems as much as 9 ft. in height, some of which have been
quite unbranched. The cones are very numerous, are short, and are borne
solitarily at the tips of the ultimate branchlets very much after the same
manner and appearance as in L. cernuum. Instances are to be met with
sometimes in which there has been a vegetative prolongation of the cone,
as at the points marked with a cross in Plate XIII, D. In this particular
figure the lower of the two fertile regions thus indicated may well have been
differentiated after the whole twig had been formed.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI

Pl.\te XIII.

to

o

X!

<

c3
>

o

Face p. 19.'.]

Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. LI.

Pl.\te XIV.

A, L. jit^tigicUum : Fertile aerial branch of mcsophytie variety, from lowlands, Westland.
B, L. Jastifjiatum : Portion of rhizome witii two sterile branches, xerophytic
variety from Browning Pass. C, L. Druninioiidii : Two incomjilete plants
showing portion of creeping stem with fertile branch.

HoLLOWAY. — Sfi/f/irs in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodiuni. 193

L. fastigiafum varies very much in the form of its aerial branches in
accordance with the environment. Plate XIV, A and B, represent two
extreme forms, the latter from Browning Pass at a height of 5,000 ft. and
the former from Westland at practically sea-level. The form lettered B
represents a portion of a plant as it grows commonly on the hard dense
cushions of Phi/llachne clavigera. The main rhizome is deeply buried in the
rotting substratum of the cushion, and the lateral branches are also rooted
and buried, but at a lesser depth. Arising from the lateral branches are
the short tufted foliage shoots, which appear as little compact rosettes
firmly resting upon the surface of the cushion. The cones are numerous,
and stand erect on very short pedicels to a height of j in. to ^ in. The
plant figured is sterile. This is an extreme xerophytic form, and is in marked
contrast to that lettered A, which represents the species as it occurs typically
around the alluvial goldfields in the very wet climate of the lowlands of
Westland. In these localities the aerial branches attain a height of 1 ft.
to 3 ft., and are often of a striking red or golden colour, handsomely
branched, with a terminal bunch of long, club-like cones. On the Canter-
bury mountains, where this species occurs abundantly, I have often
observed that when the plants are growing in a tussock-clump or amidst
other sheltering vegetation the aerial branches are tall and slender and
open-leaved, whereas those, perhaps of the same plant, growing in the
open in the full light of the sun only a foot or two away are short, sturdy,
and compact, with much thicker stems and closely imbricating leaves.
This species occurs also commonly in subalpine Nothofagus clijfortioides
forest, and there its habit is characteristically mesophytic. There is a
certain range of variability in the form of the strobilus and its pedicel, even
in individuals from the same locality. On some branches the tips of prac-
tically all of the ultimate twigs are fertile and there is no pedicel, there
being a gradual transition from the vegetative leaves of the twig to the
sporophylls. On other branches, again, the main axes of the branch are
continued on as long scantily-leaved pedicels, bearing one or more long,
club-shaped cones, which are often branched. The former condition is,
generally speaking, characteristic of the xerophytic type of branch, and the
latter of the mesophytic, although this distinction is not always kept.
Among the mesophytic form of plants some very extreme examples of
pedicel-formation are sometimes to be met with.

As in the case of the last-named species, the wet climate of the low-
lands of Westland encourages a luxuriant growth of L. scariosum. Plate XII,
fig. 2, B, shows a portion of the rhizome of this species with two small
erect lateral branches bearing cones. The development of heterophyUy in
this species, as in the case of L. voluhile, has been elsewhere described by
the writer (15, p. 366). In L. voluhile the acicular leaves are finer in form
than in the other species, and there are about twice as many orthostichies.
HeterophyUy in L. voluhile arises through two orthostichies on each lateral
face of the branch approximating to one by being flattened in the plane of
the ground, the leaves of these orthostichies assuming the larger form. At
the same time the leaves of the two or three orthostichies placed ventrally
and also dorsally become much reduced. All stages in the development of
this dimorphism can be seen in young plants, and also in the reversion
foliage which has already been noted as occurring in this species. In the
case of L. scariosum it is the leaves of the two dorsally placed orthostichies
which become flattened in the plane of the ground and assume the larger
form, there being two to four orthostichies of much reduced scale-like leaves
7 — ^Trans.

194 Transactions.

on the ventral side. The stages in the development of this form of dis-
tichous arrangement can also be seen in the young plants, but not so well
as in L. volubile, since the heterophylly is developed rapidly and very early.
When growing in dry situations — as, for example, at considerable altitudes —
the lateral branches of the mature plant of L. scariosum are more or less
flattened in the j)lane of the ground, but when amongst other vegetation
they tend to assume a more upright position. This species occurs in wide,
luxuriant spreads around the abandoned gold-mining claims throughout
north Westland, and there the lateral branches are characteristically erect-
growing, although the heterophylly is still strongly marked. Frequently, as
a result of the upright habit of growth, the twigs of these branches show an
all-round spread, and even the flattened falcate leaves are more outstanding,
but inspection shows that both twigs and leaves arise in the characteristic
dorsiventral manner. The long club-shaped cones are borne in great num-
bers, being raised up on pedicels 3 in. to 6 in. in height, which are formed
by the continued growth of the main twigs of the branch. The appear-
ance of these pedicels previous to the formation of the cones is very
striking, standing stiffly up as they do in massed numbers above the dense
foliage. The gradual transition from heterophylly to the spiral arrange-
ment of ordinary acicular leaves can be well seen at the base of these
pedicels. When growing amongst ferns and saplings at the edge of the
forest, the lateral branches of this species sometimes become very long-
drawn-out and adopt a semi-scrambling habit. Owing to the rapid growth
the scale leaves are somewhat scattered along these branches, and in those
regions in which the characteristic heterophylly has appeared its develo])-
ment has taken place irregularly. Instances are not infrequently met with
of internodes showing, contrary to the usual rule, one, two, or even three
dorsaljy placed orthostichies of scale leaves, the type of heterophylly then
approximating to that of L. volubile.

Stem-anatomy.

As in the case of the two other natural divisions of the genus, the
Clavata section shows a very characteristic and consistent type of stelar
anatomy. This has been described by Jones (21) in the six species
L. clavatum, L. annotinum, L. complanatum, L. chamaecyparissus, L. alpinum,
and L. obscurum ; by Boodle (2) in L. volubile; and by myself (15, 16) in
the four New Zealand species which belong to this section. The central
cylinder consists throughout of parallel plates of alternating xyleni and
phloem disposed dorsiventrally, surrounded by a pericycle. Consequent on
the comparatively large size of the plant in the New Zealand species,
the number of plates of vascular tissue is also large. The phloem is
markedly differentiated into centrally-placed empty sieve tubes of large
size and flanking phloem parenchyma with abundant contents. I have
previously described (15) in L. volubile and L. scariosum the development
of the dorsiventral structure characteristic of the mature stele from the
radial structure characteristic of the young plant, showing that it is initi-
ated in the developing plant at the point of branching, which in this section
of the genus always takes place in the plane of the ground, and tends
thereafter to be preserved in between the branchings. Assuming that this
is the main cause of the dorsiventral structure, it is quite possible that
it will be found in species which are not closely related, and thus this
character taken by itself will not be a sure sign of natural affinity. Owing
to the great plasticity of the genus Lycopodium as seen in all its main

HoLLOWAT. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 195

characters, the natural cUassification of the species must take all these
characters into consideration, weighing one against another, and can only-
become an accomplished thing when the full life-history of many more of
the more important species is known. This is, of course, true in a greater
or less degree of every genus and family of plants, but it is especially true
of the present one.

The stelar and cortical anatomy is very consistent in structure as it
occurs in the case of each of the four New Zealand species, but certain
small distinguishing features are worth recording. The text-figures illus-
trating the vascular structure of the four species show in each case the
ends of two bands of both xylem and phloem with the protoxylem and
protophloem groups, and also the adjacent pericyclic and cortical regions.
As in the case of the other New Zealand species, semi-diagrammatic drawings
of the complete stele have been
given in another paper (16). In
the stem of L. voluhile (fig. 13)
a very characteristic feature is
the exceedingly large size of
the sieve tubes. The chief meta-
xylem elements are also large,
and are noticeably flanked on
both sides of each band by small-
sized tracheides. The pericycle
is narrower than in the other
species. Practically the whole
of the cortex is strongly scleren-
chymatous. Three zones can
be recognized, however — an
inner narrow, exceedingly
strongly thickened zone, in
which the cells have been flat-
tened tangentially by mutual

pressure and the cell-cavities almost obliterated ; a broad median zone of
circular, thick-walled cells, which passes into a narrow epidermal zone of
thin-walled cells showing air-spaces and bounded externally by a strongly
cuticularized epidermis. The whole stem and the vascular cylinder is
much smaller in size than in the case of the other three species. The
main features thus given of the stem-anatomy of L. voluhile — viz., the
comparatively thin stem, the woody cortex designed rather to impart a
wiry quality to the stem than to act as a starch-storing tissue, and also
the large open vascular elements — can be put into connection with the
scrambling habit of the plant. In the large adventitious roots the con-
figuration of the stele is strikingly stellate (16, fig. 93). There is no
modification of the vascular tissues in the ultimate branchlets by the
heterophyllous habit.

The rhizome of L. densum is from two to three times as thick as that
of L. voluhile, and the vascular cylinder is very large. The cortex functions
as a storing tissue. There is a somewhat narrow, strongly sclerenchy-
matous, inner cortical zone, while the rest of the cortex consists of much
less thickened circular cells containing abundant starch. In the aerial stems
the whole of the cortex is strongly sclerenchymatous. The same rhizomes
which show the presence of starch in the cortex show also the cells of the
phloem parenchyma to be practically empty, but immediately behind the

Fig. 1.3.

— Lycopodium volubile. Transverse
section of portion of stele of main
stem. X 137.

196

Transactioiis.

rhizome-apex they have abundant contents. The sieve tubes are very
much smaller than in L. voluhile. There is a much scantier development
of small-sized flanking xylem elements, but the main metaxylem tracheides
are large (fig. 14). The dorsiventral structure of the main rhizome stele
passes over into the lower regions of the aerial stems, but this is more or
less quickly replaced there by the stellate or radial form. The largest aerial
branches not infrequently possess towards their base a larger stele than do
t!ie main rhizomes. At the base of one such stem I found as many as
twenty-one protoxylem groups, whereas the number in a full-grown rhizome
is generally about seventeen or eighteen. In this connection reference may

be made to Jones's remark with
regard to the vascular structure
in the stem of L. obscuruni
(21, p. 32). He says, '' In any
hypothesis which endeavours to
explain the dorsiventral struc-
ture in the creeping stems the
fact must not be overlooked
that the banded structure is
well marked in the stem of the
erect-growing species of L.
ohscurum." There is no doubt
that L. obscurum, as also L.
densum, must be removed from
Pritzel's Cernua section and
placed in the Clavata section.
L. densum is not an erect-growing
plant, as stated by Pritzel, but is
plagiotropic, and it is practically
certain, judging from the spore-
ling plants which I have found,
that the prothallus belongs to one or other of the deep-growing, massive
types. Mr. Cheeseman has informed me that in both Bretton's and Asa
Gray's manuals of the flora of the United States of America L. obscurum
is described as possessing subterranean creeping " rootstocks." Moreover,
Spessard (26) has found the prothallus of this latter species to be of the
L. clavatum type. Even if the material of L. obscurum examined by Jones
was not that of the main creeping stem but of the lateral branch, the fact
of its dorsiventral structure would not be significant, since, as I have
shown in L. densum., this frequently persists for some distance up a
branch after having been carried over from the main stem at the point
of forking.

The main subterranean rhizome of L. fastigiatum is much shorter than
that of the other three species, and is more slender than that of L. densum
or L. scariosum. Two characteristic features of its vascular tissues are tlie
small size of the xylem elements and the sieve tubes, and also the wide
double-zoned peri cycle. The nature of the pericycle in this species will be
seen from fig. 15. It consists of two distinct zones, the inner of which is
from four to five cells wide, and shows abundant contents, and stains a
reddish-brown with safranin, and an outer zone three to four cells wide,
also showing abundant contents, but staining purple with the haematoxylin
Evidently this wide pericycle has been developed as a storage tissue, and
the stored substance in both zones appears to be starch, although the reason

Fig. 14.

— Lycopodium densum. Transverse
section of portion of stele of main
rhizome. X 137.

HoLLOWAT. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lyoopodiuni. 197

Fig. 15. — Lycopodium jastigiatum. Trans-
verse section of portion of stele of
main rhizome. x 137.

for the different staining-qualities of these two zones is not clear. The
cortex consists of an inner, narrow, very strongly sclerenchymatous region
of exactly the same nature as in
the rhizome of L. densmn, and a
broad median zone of much less
thickened cells which are abund-
antly stored with starch. The
outer region of the cortex in this
species is peculiar. There is a layer
of small-celled comi:)act paren-
chyma, three to four cells in width,
and bounded externally by a
strongly cuticularized epidermis
which is wholly without stomata,
and this is separated from the
median rather thick-walled cortical
region by a layer of enormously
large thin- walled empty paren-
chyma cells, two or three cells in
width. It is rather difficult to say
what is the significance of this
peculiar wide-celled zone. Possibly it functions as a water-storing tissue.
If the rhizome had been epigaeous it might have been interpreted as an
aeration tissue. The outermost cortical zone easily tears away in this
region, and in dried herbarium specimens of the Browning Pass form
I have also noticed the same.

The main stems of L. scariosum are stout and epigaeous. and not very
widely spreading. In point of actual size the stele is not much larger than
that of L. volubde, but it contains twice the amount of vascular tissue, owing
to the fact that the xylem and phloem elements are all very much smaller
in size than in the latter species. This will be at once apparent from

fig. 16, which should be com-
pared with that illustrating
the stele of L. voluhile. In
L. scariosum there is also an
entire absence of the small
tracheides flanking the large
metaxylem elements, which
present so characteristic a
feature in the stele of L.
voluhile, and to a smaller
extent also in that of the other
two species. The number of
protoxyleni groups in the full-
grown stem of L. voluhile is
from ten to sixteen, but in
that of L. scariosum it is
from eighteen to twenty-seven.
The stout size of the rhizome is due to the very large cortex, which
consists of an almost uniform tissue of not very strongly thickened
sclerenchyma. There is no inner strongly sclerenchymatous zone such
as exists in the other three species. I did not observe starch in the
cortical tissues, although this may possibly be present at certain seasons

Fig.

16. — Lycopodium scariosum. Transverse
section of portion of stele of main
stem. X 137.

198 Transactiojis.

of the year. The outer zone of the cortex is noteworthy, and may
be compared with that in the rhizome of L. fast igiat urn. It consists
of a rather loose tissue of small roundish thin-walled parenchyma, three
to five cells in width, showing air-spaces, and bounded externally by
an epidermis which is only slightly cuticularized. There are abundant
stomata present. In some places this aerating tissue seems to be in process
of breaking down, while there are quite lengtliy stretches in which there is
seen to be the same development of enormously large irregular-shaped cells
separating the outer from the main cortical zones, as also occurs in L. fasti-
giafum. It is possible that in L. scariosum this is an adaptation for
aeration purposes, and that in L. fastigiatum is still persists although the
rhizome has become subterranean. The subterranean habit has probably
arisen as a modification from the epigaeous trailing stem, and there is no
doubt that it is not an absolutely fixed character, as is seen from the case of
L. densum. However, a simpler explanation is that in both L. scariosum and
L. fastigiatum the peculiar large-celled tissue functions as a water-reservoir.
As in the other three species, the aerial branches show a stellate configu-
ration, and there is no modification of the stele in the strobili or in the
heterophyllous regions of the plant.

There is thus seen to be a very characteristic form of stele in all
the species which belong to the section Clavata. This type of stele gives
evidence of a greater degree of modification than do the other two main
types which occur in the genus. The habit and external form of these
species also present the greatest degrees of modification, and it is obvious
that the stelar anatomy is in direct correspondence with the habit. The
four New Zealand species show some small but interesting peculiarities
which can all be best explained by reference to the environmental factors.
The stem-anatomy of this section of the genus is thus seen to be in a plastic
condition, and some very interesting experiments could be conducted
(though perhaps with difficulty) to determine whether or not these modi-
fications are fixed characters. Whether or not the dorsiventral type of
stele covers but a single cycle of natural affinity in the section can only be
determined by a full study of the other main characters of the species
concerned.

The Prothallus.

The prothallus throughout this section is large, compact, long-lived, and
more or less deeply buried, and in its wholly saprophytic habit is clearly the
most modified of all the Lycopodium types. There are two main types of
this form of prothallus — viz., the clavatum type and the comjAanatmn type ;
and of the seven species of this section whose prothalli are known five
conform to the clavatum type and two to the complanatum type. Bruch-
mann (5, 6) has described the prothalli of L. clavatum, L. annotinum, and
L. complanatum, and Lang (24) that of L. clavatum. Spessard (25, 26)
has recently given a preliminary account of the prothalli of L. clavatum,
L. complanatum, L. annotinum, and L. obscurum as they occur in America.
The prothalli of the New Zealand species L. voluhile and L. scariosum
have been described by Miss Edgerley (12), by Chamberlain (7), and by
myself (15, 16). I have also described (16) the prothallus of the other
New Zealand species, L. fastigiatum.

These types of deeply buried prothalli, living under consistent conditions,
do not show in any individual species such a range of variability as do
those forms of prothallus which can reach the surface. In fact, the main
variations from the normal which I have met with are related to the actual

/■

HoijI.oway. — Studies in the New Zealand Sj)ec/es of Lycopodimn. 199

bulk of the prothallus or to the fact that, as in L. volubile, it occasionally
grows at the surface of the ground and develops chlorophyll. The different
species, however, show certain characters, more especially in the structure
of the fungal zones, in which they differ from the other species of the same
type. These might be viewed as variations from the two main stocks repre-
sented by L. clavatum and L. complanatum, or they may be taken as
indicating that the adaptation of the prothallus to the subterranean, wholly
saprophytic mode of life has occurred independently in a number of species.

A comparison of Bruchmann"s account of the prothallus of L. clavatum
with that of Lang shows that, although in the main the two descriptions
are very similar, there are yet certain particulars in which they differ.
These refer more particularly to the main fungal and store tissues. It will
be worth while to notice these details, in view of the fact that, as will be seen
below, some of the distinguishing details in the two New Zealand species are
remarkably characteristic. Some of the differences manifest between Bruch-
mann's and Lang's accounts and figures are to be explained by the fact that
the longitudinal sections which the latter figures and describes are not
median. Lang himself in a footnote mentions that the first-formed conical
projection at felie base of the prothallus was not at first noticed by him
and hence does not appear in his figures. On account of this, the layer of
flat, elongated cells belonging to the central core, which Bruchmann describes
as lying next to the starch-containing store tissue where the latter abuts
on to the centrally placed core of large-celled empty tissue, does not appear
in Lang's figures and is not mentioned by him, for in the sections on which he
bases his description it was, of course, cut transversely. Also, Bruchmann's
figures show a very much thicker subepidermal cortical fungal zone than do
Lang's — at least, towards the upper half of the prothallus. Again, Bruch-
mann speaks of the starch-containing store cells as polyhedral in shape,
but Lang says that they are not infrequently elongated in the same
direction as those of the palisade layer. Bruchmann figures the palisade
layer as a very clearly marked one in which the single row of palisade cells
is very much elongated in a direction at right angles to the surface, but in
Lang's figures the cells are much shorter and are sometimes in two rows.
Now, all these differences can be accounted for by the fact that Lang's
sections, not being exactly median, have cut the various cell-layers some-
what obliquely. These differences in the two accounts, therefore, must
not be taken to show that the structure of the prothallus of L. clavatum is
in a variable condition. A more important difference between the two
accounts lies in the fact that Lang describes the presence of the fungus in
the starch-containing store tissue as penetrating not within the cell-cavities
but in the cell-walls, whereas Bruchmann says quite definitely that it stops
short with the palisade layer, and in his figures he shows it to be altogether
absent from the store tissue. Ls it possible that the fungus enters this tissue
in rather old prothalli only, and that this must be held to account for the
difference ? Lang's description in this particular agrees with my own
observations on the prothallus of L. volubile and L.fastigiatum. There is no
need for me here to enter into any of the other details of the prothallial
tissues.

In the prothallus of L. volubile the most characteristic feature is the
enormous development of the palisade layer. This layer constitutes
generally by far the greater bulk of the whole prothallus. The cortical
fungus layer corresponds with that of L. clavatum except that in the New
Zealand species it is only from two to four cells in width. In a median

200 Transactions.

longitudinal section the elongated cells of the palisade layer are seen to be
from four to six deep. They overlap one another, and, contrary to what
Lang has described in L. davatum, they show the presence of dense fungal
coils in all the cells, as well as the mycelium which inhabits either the cell-
wall itself or the spaces between the cells. At its interior boundary the cells
of the palisade layer are shorter in form, and where they abut on to the
upper region of empty parenchyma cells the cells of the latter tissue are
n^uch flattened in form. Miss Edgerley, in her account of this prothallus.
(12, p. 96) says that '' the whole of the central part of the prothallium i;^
occupied by large thin-walled parenchyn>atous storage cells, in which starch
is stored in great abundance. The cells of this tissue bordering on the
palisade layer are often smaller and more densely filled with starch-
granules." I found no starch in any of the older or the young prothalli
which I sectioned. Possibly this difference is to be accounted for by a
difference in the season of the year in which Miss Edgerley's and my own
prothalli were collected. The upper fungus-free region of the prothallus,
which bears the sexual organs, is in full-grown specimens very irregularly
developed into large rounded protuberances, which overlap the original
saucer-shaped upper surface. The fungal zones extend inip such of these
protuberances as lie towards the rim of the upper surface. In such cases
as these in some longitudinal tangential sections the prothallial epidermis
and the cortical fungal zone extend almost entirely around the section,
the whcde of the interior being occupied by palisade tissue, while a very
small upper corner of the section consists of the upper noir-fungal tissue.
The youngest prothalli sectioned consisted almost entirely of fungal tissues,
more especially of the palisade layer, with a very feeble development of the
upper non-fungal zone. There is no store tissue containing starch either
in the young or mature prothalli such as Bruchmann figures in L. davatum —
in fact, the only starch which I found present consisted of a few scattered
grains is some of the palisade cells. One very large prothallus, which grevs"
at the surface of the ground, and whose upper region was vivid green in
colour, showed a considerable divergence from the normal structure of the
prothallus as just described. The palisade layer was four to five cells
in thickness, but by far the major bulk of the prothallus consisted of the
upper non-fungus-containing parenchyma. Moreover, this contained a large
accumulation of starch both in the layer immediately underlying the small-
celled, generative region and also around the meristem. The starch was
also thickly accumulated around the " foot '" of a developing plantlet. In
the palisade cells there was an abundant accumulation of oil-globules and
starch, and the epithelial cells of the '' foot " of the young plant were densely
crowded with contents. I have several times come across these green,
surface-growing prothalli.

The nature of the fungal zones in the prothallus of L. fastigiatum is
identical with that of L. voluhile. The most striking feature in it is the
enormous development of the palisade layer. In some of the largest pro-
thalli sectioned lobing of the upper surface had taken place and the fungal
zones had extended into these lobes, giving to the sections a very irregular
ajjpearance. Also, in the large prothalli the Up sometimes greatly grows
over inwards, with the result that the fungal zones become somewhat
superimposed upon one another, as has been described above in L. volvbile.
The youngest prothalli found by me were of two forms. The first were of
the usual saucer shape, showing the first-formed conical projection on the
lower surface. Those of the second form were dichotomouslv forked, as I

HoLLOAVAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodiurn. 201

liave previonsl}- described (16, v>\). 271-73), sliOMnng the two equally developed
cylindrical branches inclined to one another at an acute angle, tlie point of
the angle being the first-formed part of the prothallus. The usual fungal
zones extend up the outside of the two branches, while their opposed faces,
which are in point of fact the upper surfaces of the branches, consist of the
empty large-celled parenchyma. There is a very marked groove at the
extreme end of each branch, where the meristem is situated. This lies
somewhat towards the inner side, so that the antheridia, which are present
in large numbers, extend partly down the inner side of the arms. I have
not up to the present been able to trace the next stages in the growth of the
prothallus from this branched form, but enough has been said to show
that it constitutes a very interesting modification of the usual compact
saucer-shaped form, and possibly provides a transition between it and the
branched epiphytic type in which the meristem is confined to the ends of
the branches. One other variation from the normal must be described.
1 sectioned a fairly young prothallus of the saucer form, which showed
absolutely no fimgal infection or difterentiation of its tissues into zones.
The narrow outer layer of cells around the outer portion of the prothallus
had collapsed, but I could see no traces of fungus in the collapsed cells.
The rest of the prothallus consisted of quite uniform large cells of the usual
parenchyma form. There was an abundant development of antheridia
around the entire lip. I cannot now tell whether the prothallus was situated
at the surface of the ground or not. It is, of course, possible that the whole
of the fungal zones had been eaten away uniformly by an insect while the
prothallus was still growing. The fact that the inner boundary of the
palisade layer in this type of prothallus is always exceedingly well marked
and even lends itself to such an ex])lanation. I considerecl this peculiar
instance worthy of record, not in order to include it here as a striking
example of the plasticity of the L. fastigiatum prothallus, but so that it
might be compared with any other instance of a fungusless Lycopodiurn
[)rothallus, should such ever be found.

The other type of prothallus in this section is that of L. complanatum
and of the New Zealand species L. scariosmn. The following details of
the structure of the former will be given, so that a comparison may be
instituted with the New Zealand species. The prothallus is more or less
carrot-shaped in form, with its lower region tapering even when fully grown,
.so that the zones of tissue in the vegetative region are much narrower than
they are in the prothallus of the clavatum type. However, as a result
of its greater length these tissues about equal in amount those of the latter
type. The central core of cells is narrow, and the cells themselves are
poor in contents and are elongated in the direction of the prothallus axis.
The palisade tissue consists of very narrow, much-elongated cells, which
.show their greatest length in the thickest part of the prothallus. This
zone, which is only one cell deep, serves as a store for reserve substances,
there being no store tissue corresponding to that which is found in
L. clavatum. In the lower region of the prothallus the palisade cells are
empty, but higher up they are full. The fungal hyphae are found only
in the cell-walls of this zone, and they sometimes form between the cells
large oval spheromes. There is the usual fungal cortical tissue. This
prothallus sometimes produces one or more secondary prothalli as shoots
on the primary prothallus.

With regard to the prothallus of L. scariosum, Miss Edgerley says that
the palisade layer is several cells wide ; but I find that, whereas in sections

202 Transactions.

which are not median the palisade tissue presents this appearance, in
sections where it is cut exactly longitudinally it is found to be only one
cell thick. These cells are exceedingly long and narrow, and occasionally
divide transversely. Again, Miss Edgerlev describes the cell-layer of the
central core which abuts on to the palisade tissue as containing abundant
starch and acting as a storage tissue. I was not able to find this in any
of ray sections, but, as in the case of the prothallus of L. volubile, this may
be due to the fact that our specimens were collected at different seasons.
On the whole, the main feature in which the prothallus of L. scariosum
differs from that of L. coniplanatum is in the large, irregular size attained
by the mature individual. Young or even half-grown prothalli sometimes
show the tapering carrot form, but sooner or later this becomes modified
owing to the enormous development of the centrally placed core-cells, which
evidently must function as a store tissue. However, even very young
prothalli sometimes show a rounded lower vegetative region instead of
the tapering one, the first-formed conical region being in these cases quite
blunt. This difference, then, is to be referred to the manner of development
of the prothallus from the beginning. Whereas in L. coniplanatum the
increase in girth is very gradual, in L. scariosum it is generally rapid from
the actual point upwards. This may be occasioned possibly by the early
development of the storage function of the central core of cells, or it
may be due to a deeper constitutional difference between the two types.
In this connection, however, it is significant to note that the type
of heterophylly in both species is alike. In Part I of these Studies
(16, figs. 49-52) I have figured several very irregularly grown large pro-
thalli. As Miss Edgerley notes, the most striking feature in the large
prothallus of this species is the relatively small proportion of the bulk of
the vegetative region which is occupied by the fungal tissues, a feature
in which it is strikingly different from that of L. volubile and L. fastigiatum.

It will thus be seen from a comparison of the prothalli of the species
mentioned that as regards their fungal zones the two types are not very
dissimilar. There are two main points of difference to be noticed : first,
the increase of girth of the clavatum type from the original point upwards
is more rapid, and hence the height of the prothallus is less than in the case
of the complanaimn type ; and, secondly, the extent of the upper generative
tissue in L. clavatum is greater than in the latter species, these two features
being closely interdependent. The fact that in L. clavatum the upper
generative region is more or less saucer-shaped at its surface, with a dis-
tinct rim, and is often accompanied in large specimens by a development
of warty protuberances, whereas in L. complanatum it takes the form of
a compact semicircular crown, would seem to be simply the physical result
of the two types of growth. Lang suggests that " the flattened and still
more the trough-like form which these older prothalli present may be an
adaptation to facilitate fertilization " (24, p. 296). There is no doubt that
this particular shape does serve this purpose, but I would be inclined to
explain the difference in form between the two types in rather a different
way. I have found that the prothalli of L. scariosmn always occur at a
greater depth than those of L. voluhile and L. fastigiatum. In localities
where the prothallus of L. scariosum and L. fastigiatum were growing
together I always unearthed the latter from the layer of humus which
immediately underlay the carpet of moss, &c., whereas the former had to be
dug out of the deeper-lying clay. Not infrequently, too, I have found
the prothalli both of L. volubile and of L. fastigiatum amongst the thick

HoLLOWAY. — Sti/rJies in the Xeiv Zcnhind Species of Lycopodiiim. 203

moss itself, where they show no adhering earthy matter at all, or even,
as in the case of the former species, growing on the surface of the soil with
the upper region of the prothallus exposed to the light, being then in their
upper region a vivid green in colour. In Part I of these Studies (16, p. 262)
I noted that the prothalli of L. scariosum often lie at a depth of 8 cm. to
10 cm. I have not been able to find in Bruchmann's papers any reference
to the comparative depth at which he found the prothalli of the three
European species. I would suggest that the two different types are an
expression of the fact that the species of prothalli which conform to them
grow respectively in a shallower and in a deeper stratum of soil, the deeper-
growing prothallus having more thoroughly departed from the self-nourishing
chorophyll habit. The fact that there are two such distinct types of
prothallus in the Clavata section, and that along with these there go two
distinct types of heterophylly, may perhaps show that more than one
distinct strain of evolution is included in this section.

The Young Plant.

HeteropJujUij. — The development of heterophylly in the seedling of
L. volubile and L. scario.nmi opens up the question as to what is the nature
of the stimulus which calls forth this character. That it is an extreme
instance of adaptation is beyond doubt. Heterophylly is present in the
genus Selaginella, but it would be difficult to take the view that in the
Lycopodiuni genus it is a phylogenetic character. Thus modern systematists
have abolished Baker's subgenus Diphasium, in which he groups together
the heterophyllous species, and have distributed these species according to
their more natural affinities. Heterophylly is an adaptation which has
appeared also in the section Inundata.

What has been the particular external stimulus to call forth this cha-
racter ? It is to be noted that heterophylly is not found in any species
whose main stem is subterranean, and whose lateral branches accordingly
emerge from the ground in a stiffly erect and tree-like form. L. clensum and
L. fastigiatum possess this latter habit. Their erect, tree-like aerial branches
are obviously stimulated by the light in no one direction more than in any
other. Certainly the aerial branches of L. scariosum fre([uently grow erect in
the lowlands of Westland, as described above, and still possess the charac-
teristic heterophylly, but this is simply on account of the luxuriant massed
development of the plants in these localities. And, again, the species
L. Jussiaei Desv. of South America, which is joined by both Pritzel and Baker
with L. scariosum, shows more or less erect-growing branches along with the
heterophyllous habit. But in both these species the flattened nature of the
branching is preserved even in the more erect-growing branches, the case being
very different with the dendroid, fastigiately branched shoots of L. clensum
and L. fastigiatum. Heterophylly, then, is an adaptation which goes hand
in hand with the more or less flattened habit of the branches in which thev
are somewhat spread out in the plane of the surface over which they are
growing. The particular stimulus to the development of the large leaves
and to their dorsiventral arrangement is probably that simply of the light,
which, falling more or less at right angles upon the branches, stimulates
the leaves, which are tiny and needle-shaped and catch very little sunlight,
to place themselves in such a position and to acquire such a form that they
can intercept the maximum amount. In both L. volubile and L. scariosum
the large-shaped leaves are not naturally borne in the lateral position
but adapt themselves to it. In the case of L. volubile two neighbouring

204 Transactions.

ortliostichies on either side approximate to one, and in L. scariosum two
dorsal ortliostichies bend over one to either side. In both species the
ventrally borne leaves, which catch no direct sunlight, become mere scales,
and in L. voluhile they become also very scattered and few in number.

In sheltered, shady places plants of L. voluhile are found which show
the reversion foliage. Here no direct sunlight falls on the branches, the
light being difi'use, and the stimulus to a dorsiventral disposition of the
leaves is almost completely lacking. The equal all-round-the-stem stimulus
exerted by the diffuse light results in the tendency to a more all-round
development of the leaves ; or would it be more correct to say that the
inherited constitution of the plant has the opportunity to assert itself over
the acquired character ? Which is the correct way to express it depends,
of course, on whether or not the heterophyllous character which originally
came about as an epharmonic adaptation has altered the hereditable con-
stitution of the species. Some botanists, of course, are quite ready to
believe that such a thing is possible, and that this takes place in nature
more readily than is generally imagined, while others would hold that an
epharmonic adaptation must inevitably revert as soon as the controlling
stimulus is removed. In the young plants of L. voluhile and L. scariosum
the characteristic heterophylly appears while they are still erect in growth.
In L. scariosufn it appears almost from the very first, there being but a
few scattered scale leaves formed before the characteristic dimorphism is
in evidence, and there being practically no transition stages. In L. voluhile
the dimorphism of the leaves appears first when the plant has attained,
compared with L. scariosum, a considerable size (16, figs. 97, 98). It appears
first in some particular branchlet or other, and develops its characteristic
appearance in gradual stages, so that a plantlet possessing six to ten
branchlets will show probably every stage in the development. Since the
heterophylly appears in the plantlet before it has adopted the plagiotropic
habit, it would seem that, after all, this character has actually become fixed,
and that this has become so to a greater degree in L. scariosum than in
L. voluhile, for it appears there much earlier in the ontogeny. I have not
actually observed whether or not the young plants have their dorsiventral
branches turned at right angles to the direction of the light, but I should
judge that, if such were the case, heterophylly ought to begin in all the
branches at the same time. However, the plantlets grow generally amongst
thick moss and other vegetation where they get no direct sunlight at all.

The Plagiotropic Habit. — The sporelings of L. voluhile, L.fastigiatum, and
L. scariosum maintain an erect growth for a much longer period than do
those of the species which belong to the Lnundata and Cernua sections.
The upright stems which arise from the protocormous rhizomes in L. cernuum.
L. ramulosum, and L. laterale, and the stems of the vegetatively produced
plantlets of L. Drmmnondii, almost immediately bend over and flatten
themselves in the plane of the ground, and a strong adventitious root emerges
at right angles from the stem and binds the latter to the ground. Whether
or not it is the earl}'' development of the first adventitious root which compels
the young plant to so soon adopt the plagiotropic habit, or whether rather
it is the strong plagiotropic habit which determines that even the first
adventitious root shall emerge at right angles from the stem at the point
at which it is given oft' from the vascular cylinder, and that it shall not
penetrate down the tissues of the cortex as it does in L. Selago, I am not
able to say. The fact remains, however, that the species which belong
to the lnundata and Cernua sections characteristically differ from those of

HoLi.owAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Sjicr/cs of Lycoijodiura. 205

the Selago and Phlegmaria sections in this respect, for in the Selago section,
although roots do emerge at different points on the lower more or less
s])rawling adult stem, yet in the young plants they emerge at the base, and
throughout the life of the plants they may be seen in transverse sections
traversing longitudinally the cortical tissues of the stem. In the young
plants of L. vohihile, L. fastigiatmn, L. densum, and L. scariosum, which
belong to the Clavata section, there is a very marked erect stage in the
ontogeny. Here the prothallus is subterranean, whereas in the Inundata
and Cernua sections it is surface-growing, and thus necessarily the stem
is erect before it can even develop its foliage. However, I have often
observed that the naked subterranean stems on the deeply growing pro-
thalli of L. scariosum may be straggling and bent ; but this will probably be
the result merely of the presence of stones, &c., in the soil around which the
stem has to find its way. Thus in these plants the stem-axis emerges per-
pendicularly out of the soil. However, contrary to what takes place in the
young plant of the Inundata and Cernua sections, the stem continues to grow
erect. A young plantlet of L. densum found by me was no less than 4| in.
in height, being in every respect truly erect. Besides the first-formed root
there was present a second, the first " adventitious " root, which was borne
on the underground portion of the stem just above the " foot." The young
plants of L. scariosum frequently grow erect and branch to a height of 1| in.
to 2 in., and those of L. voluhile and L. fastigiafum to an even greater height.
It will thus be seen that in the Clavata section there is in the ontogeny a
strongly marked erect stage which precedes the adoption of the plagio-
tropic habit. The adventitious roots I found in no case to travel down
through the cortical tissues of the stem, but they emerge immediately
from it at right angles. Miss Wiggiesworth (31), however, records an
instance in a plantlet of L. complanatum. in which she found one rootlet
which had travelled for some distance down the cortex of the stem instead
of pushing its way directly to the periphery. This must certainly be
regarded as an abnormality. In the erect plantlets of all the New Zealand
species the adventitious roots commence usually to arise on the sub-
terranean portion of the stem just above the foot, and are also frequently
to be seen projecting out at right angles from the aerial region of the stem.
There can be no doubt that when these roots do reach the ground they
help the plant to bend over and adopt the trailing habit of growth. I have
not infrequently seen well-grown erect plantlets of L. volubile, which had
branched several times, on which one or more strong, naked adventitious
roots an inch or two in length, which had not yet reached the soil, were
present immediately behind the tips of the branches, the terminal portion
of one or other of the branches having begun to increase in stoutness in
anticipation of its greater extension in length.

In the Selago section some of the species are stiffly erect, but in others
the lower part of the stem is somewhat recumbent. L. Selago itself shows
in the different forms in which it occurs in New Zealand both these habits
of growth. L. varium also in its smallest forms is more typically erect
than in the larger forms. Whatever may have been the extent of growth
of the ancestral stock of the modern genus, herbaceous or more tree-like,
the erect species that now exist do not possess the capacity of extensive
growth. It would seem to be more probable that the modern species have
sprung from an herbaceous stock than that from the whole genus the
character of secondary growth, whether of vascular or of cortical tissues,
has been completely lost without the slightest trace having been left behind.

206 Transactions.

In the Selago and Phlegmaria sections, owing to the fact that the primitive
dichotomous nature of branching is the characteristic one, the plant is strictly
limited in size. In the Inundata and Cernua sections both dichotomous
and monopodia] branching is to be found. The branching of the young
plant of L. cernuum., L. latemle, and L. ramulosmn is always at first
dichotomous. In L. ramulosum this is more or less maintained throughout
the life-history, the rosette form which arises as the result of the repeated
dichotomies being very characteristic. This species shows an interesting
transition from the subaerial to the subterranean habit of growth, the
branches in some localities growing down into the soil and functioning as
rhizomes. In L. laterale this has taken place to a greater extent, so that
there the branches of the plant have become permanently subterranean.
However, in this species also the growth of the plant is limited, for sooner
or later these rhizomes emerge from the ground as the aerial shoots. The
branching of the mature plant of L. Drummonclii, however, is monopodia!,
and the plant itself is wholly above-ground, so that the way is open for
it to spread extensively ; but it never attains a greater length than 6 in.
to 8 in. All the members of the Inundata and Cernua sections are very
limited in their extent of growth, except L. cernuum, the replacing in them
of the dichotomous by the monopodial habit of growth resulting in very
little increase in the size. In L. cernuum, however, the case is different.
Here too the branching is dichotomous in the young plant, but the adoption
of the monopodial habit leads to the unlimited growth both of the main
stem and of some of its lateral branches. This species alone of those which
belong to these two sections spreads itself over dry localities, the others
being all confined to a marshy habitat. It would seem best, then, to regard
this character in L. cernuum as quite a recent adaptation, this species, at
any rate with respect to its habit and external form, being by no means
typical for the two sections. The trailing habit of L. cernuum is not so
characteristically plagiotropic as is that of the species comprising the
Clavata section. It provides in this respect a transition, for its main stem
is more ascending than creeping. The apex is continually striving to ascend,
and it is only through being weighed down to the ground through its own
increase in length that the stem then puts forth a bunch of adventitious
roots, the series of such loops in which the plant grows showing that it
consistently maintains the ascending habit. Amongst the Leptospermum
scrub in the gum lands of North Auckland, where this species grows most
luxuriantly I have sometimes seen the stems scrambling over the vegeta-
tion. However, this is by no means so marked a habit as in L. volubile, in
which latter species striking modifications have taken place as a result of
this habit.

In the young plants of the species which comprise the Clavata section
the monopodia! habit of branching is present before ever the young plant
becomes plagiotropic ; in fact, in most cases there is no dichotomous
branching at all (16, figs. 97-101). The terminal region of the main stem
suddenly assumes a stouter form and puts forth an adventitious root.
This most often takes place after the plant has begun to bend over. If
we are to argue from the facts of the ontogeny we must certainly con-
clude that the plagiotropic habit of growth is a recent adaptation, and
that the power of unlimited growth is the most recent feature of this
habit. This is the conclusion also to which the facts relating to the
Inundata and Cernua sections seem to lead us. There is one feature
which probably is a still further adaptation, and that is the subterranean

HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodiuni. 207

habit of growth of the main stem. In L. voluhile and L. scariosum this has
not taken place, but in L. fastigiatum and L. densum the young trailing
stem early buries itself in the soil. This also is the manner in which the
subterranean habit comes about in the developing plant of certain of the
species of the Inundata and Cernua sections.

The " Foot." — In all the species which belong to the section Clavata
the young plant possesses a very large " foot " by which it is attached to
the prothallial tissues. This foot evidently functions as an absorbing-
organ for a considerable time, for the epithelial cells show the presence of
abundant contents even after the sporeling has attained a considerable size.
This I have already indicated earlier in this paper in my description of a large
surface-growing prothallus of L. voluhile. Miss Wigglesworth (31) suggests
that it may even function after the disappearance of the prothallus itself.
Lang (24) figures the same epithelial layer in the case of the young plant
of L. clavatum. Both Miss Wigglesworth and I have found that a strand
of vascular tissue containing both xylem and phloem passes off from the main
stele of the plant into the foot. The former has demonstrated this in the
case of L. complanatum, illustratmg it with a series of figures, but she states
that she did not find this condition in the young plants of L. clavatxim. In
a previous paper (16, p. 285-86) I have described the presence of this foot
strand in the young plants of L. voluhile, stating that whereas in the smaller
plantlets the strand consists of small thin-walled cells with abundant cell-
contents, in older plantlets a few tracheides are also present. I also stated
in the same place that in the exceptionally large " foot " of L. scariosum
only in the sections nearest to the main stele was any small-celled tissue
to be seen, and this contained no tracheides, and also that in the case of
L. fastigiatum the strand was not developed to the same extent as in
L. voluhile. T concluded that " the development of vascular tissue in the
foot of the young plant varies in extent in different individuals of the same
species, and possibly this is dependent simply upon the size to which the
parent prothalli may grow." It is evident, therefore, that in this organ
also, as in the form and structure of the prothallus, the species composing
the Clavata section are in a condition of plasticity.

Summary.

In this paper I have described the variations which I have observed to
occur in the main characters of the New Zealand species of Lycopodium,
and my aim has been to show that these characters must be regarded as
being more or less in a condition of great plasticity. Also, at the risk
of being tedious, I have noted, in order to institute comparisons, some of
the facts relating to the plasticity of other species of the genus. These
variations in form and structure can, of course, be viewe(f either as fixed
characters or as characters which are maintained only so long as the
controlling external conditions are present. This is a cjuestion which can
only be settled by experimental cultivation of the plants and prothall
concerned.

The modern genus shows certain main types of form and structure in
accordance with which Baker, and more recently Pritzel, has classified the
various species. That the latter's classification is a natural one seems to
follow from the fact that these types do not relate to one character only, but
that all the main characters of the plant, both gametophytic and sporophytic,
are more or less consistently interdependent. The different types of the
prothallus have been regarded by some botanists as almost unrelated to

208 Transactions. '•

one another, representing quite distinct Lycopodiaceous stocks. This was
the conclusion arrived at by Treub from his study of the prothalli and
young plants of several species belonging to the Selago, PJdegmaria, and
Cernua sections, and by Bruchmann also from his study of the prothalli of
several European species. Lang, however, pointed out (24) that in spite
of the great differences existing between these types there was a common
fundamental structure to be traced in all, and that the various modifica-
tions of this structure were all obviously in accord with the particular mode
of life peculiar to each prothallial type. He stated his belief that it was
the change from the self-nourishing chlorophyll condition to a saprophytic
condition of life which has determined the lines upon which the Lycopodium
prothallus has evolved, and he pointed to the variations which are known
to occur in the prothallus of L. Selago as illustrating clearly how it has
been possible for the more modified types of prothallus to arise. Further,
taking into account the fact that the mode of life of the different types of
prothalli, as exemplified in the twelve species whose prothallus was then
known, was in close accord with the habit of the sporophyte generation, he
suggested that it was possible that the genetic affinities of the species of
Lycopodium will be found to coincide exactly with the biological divisions
of the genus.

The facts which I have brought forward in this paper relating to the
variations of the main types which occur in the New Zealand species,
and also to the great range of variability which the individual species show
under the manifold external conditions under which they are found in this
biological region, seem to be thoroughly in accord with Lang's suggestion.
Not only do the prothalli of these species provide transitions between the
main types in the same sense as does that of L. Selago, but so also do the
other main characters ; in fact, these variations show that the whole geiius
is in a state of great plasticity, and that the various types of habit and
external form of the sporophyte, of the nature of the fertile region, of the
vascular anatomy, and of the form of prothallus and young plant, can be
best explained only by viewing them together as adaptations which have
proceeded more or less hand in hand.

At the same time, the eleven New Zealand species bring to light no
new main types either of prothallus, of young plant, or of stelar anatomy.
Our knowledge of these species serves to emphasize the fact that there are
three main cycles of affinity to be distinguished in the modern genus —
namely, the Selago- Phleg mar ia group, the Inundata-Cernua group, and the
Clavata grouji. In the different parts of this paper I have tried to institute
a distinction between characters which are recent and adaptive and those
which are phylogenetic, and in the light of these facts have expanded more
fully the conchisions with regard to the interrelationships of these main
groups which I reached in a former paper (16, p. 302). Stated briefly, these
conclusions were that the Selago section must be held to comprise the most
primitive and least modified members of the modern genus, and that the
Phlegmaria and Clavata sections have been independently derived from it,
the former being less modified than the latter. The Inundata and Cernua
sections I suggested should best be placed in a group apart, as having been
derived from ancestors common to themselves and to the Selago section but
independently of the latter. I will now proceed to sum up the results of
the present paper in terms of this thesis.

The statement that the Selago section comprises the most primitive
members of the genus by no means suggests that with respect to all its

HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopoclium. 209

characters it is primitive. The Inundata-Cernua group is generally held to
possess the most primitive form of prothallus, being one which is least
modified of all from the original self-nourishing chlorophyllous condition.
Nor does this belief in the primitive character of the Selago section rest
upon a basis of palaeontological fact, very little evidence of this kind being
forthcoming, but it is founded upon the broad fact that in a genus which
is in an exceedingly plastic condition the characters of this section show,
on the whole, the least degree of adaptation to external conditions. The
species of the Selago section are typically orthotropic in habit, and dichoto-
mously branched. L. Selago itself shows very little differentiation between
fertile and sterile regions of the stem, although in some forms the beginnings
of this may be seen. Seeing that the strobilar habit had been thoroughly
adopted by the Carboniferous Lycopodiales, it might seem natural to infer
that the modern members of the Selago section Avere in process of losing
it by reduction. However, from another point of view it would be un-
natural to infer this, for the type species, L. Selago, is the most widely spread
and highly variable of all the species of Lycopoclium, and this would certainly
not be the case if it occupied a position as the most recent member of a long
reduction series. The most natural view would seem to be that L. Selago,
with its congeners, has originated from a stock which did not possess the
strobilar habit. The stelar anatomy in this section is typically radial, a
type of stele which is undoubtedly as primitive as the circular protostele.
The prothallus of L. Selago is in a much more plastic condition tlian are
those of the Phlegrnaria or Clavata sections. The latter are greatly modified
in accordance with their respective modes of life, having practically aban-
iioned the chlorophyll condition, and have acquired a definite and probably
fixed form in relation to the saprophytic condition. The prothallus of
L. Selago is very variable in form according as it occurs at or beneath the
surface of the soil, and shows a transition stage between the chlorophyll
and the completely saprophytic habit. Bower indicates the significance of
this when he says, " A plant which shows such plasticity is clearly not far
removed from the self-nourishing condition of the prothallus which was
probably the primitive condition for them all " (3, p. 345). Lastly, the
L. Selago type of embryo is the simplest and least modified of all the types
in the genus, and may well be regarded as primitive. These, then, are the
evidences of primitive simplicity which point to the Selago section as com-
prising the most primitive members of the genus, and from this as a
premise the argument as to the relative position of the other sections can
be built up.

A chain of forms links up the two typical forms L. Selago and L. Bil-
lardieri with respect to the external form of the plant and the differentia-
tion of the fertile region, L. varium being an important connecting-link.
The stelar anatomy is identical throughout the whole chain of forms, what
modifications there are being dependent simply upon the size of the plant
and occurring alike in both sections. In all the epiphytic species in which
it is known, whether of the Selago or of the Phlegrnaria section, the pro-
thallus is of the branched Phlegrnaria type. This is so in the rock-epiphyte
L. varium and the tree-epiphytes L. Billardieri and L. Billardieri var.
gracile. This form is regarded as bearing reasonable comjKirison with the
form which is adopted by the prothallus of L. Selago when growing well
below the surface. The form of the sporeling plant of the three New
Zealand species is identical with that of L. Selago, the first leaves being
large, and not scale-like, and similar to the mature foliage. The typical

210 Transactions.

epiphytes are for the most part pendulous, although some, by reason of the
strongly thickened cortex, are more rigid. L. Billardieri sometimes grows
on the ground, and is then more or less erect, with shortened overhanging
strobili. L. varium also provides a striking gradation in form from the
stiffly erect to the pendulous habit. The entire genus is characterized by
the fact that the roots are adventitious and arise behind the growing apex.
In the sections Selago and Phlegmaria, in accordance with the habit of
growth, the roots emerge at the base of the stem, penetrating down the
cortical tissues in order to do this. In L. Selago the characteristic ortho-
tropism is modified by the somewhat sprawling character of the lower region
of the stem, and the roots emerge from the stem throughout this region.
In L. varium and L. Billardieri the stem is more vertical, whether erect or
pendulous, and the roots are borne only in a bunch at the base. The
transition between the Selago and Phlegmaria conditions of the fertile region
is strikingly exemplified in L. varium and L. Billardieri var. gracile, which
may on the one plant show practically all stages between a wholly undif-
ferentiated condition of the fertile region and a special sporophyll and
special strobilar formation. At the base of mature xerophytic plants of
L. Selago the leaves are of the larger form which is characteristic of the
mesophytic variety, and in the embryo plant the first leaves are large and
not scale-like. This would seem to indicate that the immediate ancestors
of the species of the Selago type possessed leaves which were larger than
the acicular or scale-like leaves of the common Lycopodiaceous form. The
three New Zealand species which belong to the Phleg?naria section, as also
many others, all possess the larger form of leaves. The fact that not a
few epiphytic species have the acicular form of leaf may indicate that the
large leaf is not merely a mesophytic character, but is an indication of the
presence of more than one line of evolution in the Phlegmaria section. It
is, of course, probable that the epiphytic habit has been adopted by species
which are not immediately related, but that there have been parallel cases
of adaptation to similar conditions, and it is possible that these species
may have sprung not only from members of the modern Selago cycle of
affinity other than L. Selago itself, but even from related forms now wiped
out. However, in the New Zealand species we can trace a continuous chain
from L. Selago to L. Billardieri through L. varium. Thus a comparison of
the New Zealand members of the Phlegmaria section with L. Selago brings
forward facts which are in close accord with the belief that the epiphytic
species have all been derived from the Selago cycle of affinity, and that
the evolution of the characteristic Phlegmaria plant-form, strobilus, and
prothallus has been determined by the epiphytic habit. Moreover, the close
similarity between the two sections in respect to their chief characters may
be regarded as sufficient ground to justify the grouping of these two sections
as one natural division of the genus.

When we turn to those species which are classified in the Clavata section
we find that the main characters of both gametophyte and sporophyte are in
a less variable condition than are those of the Selago and Phlegmaria sections.
They have become more fixed in form and structure, and are all obviously
in direct harmony with the mode of life. The individual species do not,
on the whole, show such a wide range of variability in the external form of
the sporophyte or in the nature of the fertile region as do, for example, the
species L. Selago, L. varium, and L. Billardieri, although certain charac-
teristic " fixed " features are to be found in almost every species. How-
ever, in the life-history there is to be found striking evidence of the fact

HOLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand SjJecies of Lj-copodium. 211

that the mature form and structure of the plant is a more or less recent
modification. In the young plant the habit is orthotropic for a lengthy
stage. The stimulation of the cortical and stelar tissues to an increase in
girth does not take place till after the stem has begun to assume the
plagiotropic habit, and is then localized in its terminal region. This indi-
cates that the character of unlimited growth from a broad apex has been
an added feature in the phylogeny. The character of heterophylly makes
a somewhat earlier appearance, though not so early in the sporeling of
L. volubile as in that of L. scariosum. The stelar anatomy of the stem is
primarily radial, as in the Selago and Phlegmaria sections, but this becomes
)nodified to a characteristic dorsiventral arrangement by the restriction of
the branching of the mature stem to one plane. The large size of the stele
and the differentiation of the xylera and phloem into large conducting
elements and flanking storage elements has come about simply through the
extended growth of the plant, this being most marked in the scrambling
stem of L. volubile. The subterranean habit of the main stems of L. densum
and L. fasfigiatum is an extreme modification and is only found in a few of
the species. In some species — for example, L. densnni — the cones are very
numerous, every terminal branchlet in the upper portion of the erect aerial
shoot being fertile. In this case the cones are quite short and are not
always erect, and there is no suggestion of a pedicel. In other species — for
example, L. scariosum. and L. fastigiatum, — there is a great restriction in the
cone-formation, only the main branchlets being fertile. The cones are here
long and club-shaped, and are raised on long pedicels through the continued
growth of the axes of the branchlets. Moreover, the pedicels sometimes
branch, and also sometimes even the cones themselves. This club-shaped
condition of the fertile region must be considered the most modified form
of strobilus in the plagiotropic species of Lycopodium, except that the
pendulous strobili of L. volubile are an extreme modification. That the
club-shaped cone is not a phylogenetic feature, but an adaptation only,
seems to be indicated by the fact that in L. fasfigiatum both the densum
condition and the scariosum condition occur in a most marked degree.

The prothallus shows two main types which are adapted to a sub-
terranean mode of life. It is noteworthy that whereas in L. tSelago the form
of prothallus which grows deepest is the branched form, while the compact
massive form occurs at the surface, and also that in L. Billardieri, &c.,
the subterranean habit has resulted in a much-branched structure, in the
species of the Clavata section the subterranean habit goes along with two
types of prothallus, both of which show the compact and massive form in a
most marked degree. The branching which occurs in the young prothallus of
L. fastigiatum may be significant in this respect, as indicating that this type
has not altogether lost the disposition to branch. In fact, in all the New
Zealand species the form of the prothallus is not invariable, L. volubile
and L. fastigiatum showing a lobing of the upper surface, and a pseudo-
branching being found in some large individuals of L. scariosum (16).
Bruchmann (5, 6) has shown also that the lip of the prothallus of
L. annotinum may grow out into long frill-like protuberances, and that the
prothallus of L. comjAanatum may bud. All these features, however,
possibly have no phylogenetic significance at all, but are recent modifica-
tions. The prothalli of both the Phlegmaria and the Clavata sections have
adapted themselves to a subterranean habit, and have departed from the
chlorophyll condition, although the clavatum. type has done this to a less
extent than has the comjilanatum type. As regards the dift'erentiation of the

212 Transactions.

fungal tissues the terrestrial subterranean forms of prothallus show greater
modification than does the epiphytic form, but, on the other hand, as regards
external form the former have probably kept nearer to the ancestral type
than have the latter. I will return to this again in discussing the prothallus
of the Inundata and Cernua sections. It is quite likely that the immediate
ancestral stock of the species which comprise the Clavata section were
erect-growing forms which belonged to the Selago cycle of affinity. The
stelar anatomy is fundamentally similar throughout, the characteristic
differences being readily explained. The adoption of the plagiotropic habit
])resents no great difficulties of explanation, nor does the difference in the
form of the strobilus. The presence of paraphyses on the prothallus of the
Selago and Phlegmaria sections, while serving to emphasize the fact that
these two sections together constitute a natural division of the genus,
certainly serves also to distinguish between the prothalli of the Selago and
Clavata sections. If this particular character can be considered as being
amenable, along with so many of the other characters of the prothallus, to
changes in the mode of life, its absence from the clavatum and complanatum
types of prothallus will have no phylogenetic significance. But there is no
doubt that it is to such small and constant features as this, especially those
connected with both the sexual and asexual reproductive processes, that
we are often to look for the most reliable indications of affinity or other-
wise. On the whole, it is possible to relate the Clavata section with the
Selago section, although the degree of relationship is clearly not so close as
in the case of the Selago and Phlegmaria sections. In other words, whereas
many of the species of the Phlegmaria section may be without much doubt
linked up with certain of the modern members of the Selago section, and
even with L. Selago itself, the species of the Clavata section have possibly
been derived from the Selago stock at an earlier date, and even from forms of
that stock not now existing.

Lastly, we must consider the evidence which is afforded by the
variations in the New Zealand species of the Inundata and Cernva sections
as to the natural position of this group. These two sections seem together
to constitute a natural division of the genus which is just as clearly defined
as is the Selago-Phlegmaria division. But there can be no doubt that the
I Hundata-Cernua group stands more or less apart from the rest of the genus,
its chief distinguishing characters being the mixed type of stelar anatomy,
the surface-growing chlorophyll-possessing prothallus, and the protocorm
condition of the young sporeling. The species that are included in these
two sections would seem to have departed from the primitive erect habit of
growth less recently than have even the thoroughly plagiotropic species
of the Clavata section, for they show practically no erect stage in the young
plant. Moreover, the dichotomous type of branching has been in these
sections very little replaced by the monopodial. The cones in L. laterale
are laterally placed and are sessile, but they are not infrequently terminal,
and the branching of the aerial shoots is dichotomous. L. Drummondii
branches monopodially, and so especially does L. cernuiim, more particularly
in its aerial shoots, but in the young plants the branching is always
dichotomous. The branching of the creeping stem in these sections is
never confined to the plane of the ground, as it is in the Clavata section,
but the aerial shoots arise dorsally. Thus the plagiotropic habit as seen in
this group is different in nature from that in the Clavata section. In a genus
in which the main character of the prothallus throughout is a greater or
less adaptation to a saprophytic mode of life, the occurrence of a type in

Hohhow AY .- —Studies in tht New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 213

which the saprophytic condition is still subordinate to the chlorophyll
condition must be regarded as a primitive feature. Included in these two
sections are several forms of strobilar formation. In L. contextum and
L. cruentum it represents a near approach to the undifferentiated SeJago
condition, and this may be regarded, along with the dichotomous branching
of the stem and the chlorophyllus nature of the prothallus, as an indication of
the ancient character of the Inundata-Cernua group. The long, erect, club-like
pedicelled strobili, and the short unpedicelled numerous strobili borne at
the tips of all the branches, both occur in this group, as also in the Clavata
section. Possibly these two types represent Extreme modifications, and,
seeing that thev both occur in the one species. L. fastigiatiim, it is probable
that they do not indicate any phylogenetie differences between the species.

The protocorm condition in the young plant has been found in all those
species of the Inundata and Cerrnia sections whose embryogeny is known, but
it has never been found in any other section of the genus. Treub considered
that he had found an indication of this organ in the embryo plant of L. Phleg-
maria, but this has never been established. The protocorm is thus a dis-
tinguishing character of the Inundata-Cernua division of the genus, and is
always associated with the surface-growing chlorophyllous prothallus of the
L. cernuum type. The monotypic genus PhijUoglossvm is also characterized
by the possession of a protocorm, and Thomas has shown (29) that its pro-
thallus is of the L. cernuum type. Treub elaborated the theory that the
Lgcopodium protocorm is an exceedingly primitive organ, and Phylloglossum
came to be regarded as the most primitive of vascular plants. However.
Bower and Goebel have both doubted that it represents a primitive condition
in the phylogeny of vascular plants, regarding it rather as a physiological
adaptation. In my accounts of this organ as it occurs in L. laterale, L. ramu-
losum, and L. cermmm (16) 1 have concluded on the one hand that it is a
ph^^siological development, but that on the other hand, occurring as it does
throughout the whole Inundata-Cernua division, and being always associated
with a type of prothallus which is regarded as little modified from the
ancestral type, it must certainly be considered as primitive for this division.
Further, the fact that Goebel has described adventitious protocorms in
L. inundatum (14), and that I have also found them in L. ramulosnm (17),
would seem to indicate that this organ is not to be regarded on a par
with the seedling " foot " as an adaptation which has altogether been
governed by the nature of the prothallus with which it is associated,
but that it is part of the inherited constitution of this division of the
genus.

The prothallus in this group is always chlorophyllous and surface-
growing, but it is remarkably variable in form, the different forms possibly
resulting from the different depths at which the spores germinate. In
L. cernuum and L. laterale the " shaft " may be somewhat elongated or
almost suppressed, in the latter case the prothallus appearing more compact
and massive in form. Very extreme forms are met with in L. ramulosum.
Here the short form is relatively exceedingly massive and very much like
a young prothallus of the claratum type in external appearance, almost
the whole of the bulk of the prothallus, except for the actual crown, con-
sisting of opac^ue fungal tissues. The elongated form may show as many as
five distinct fungal swellings along its length, each swelling being usually
associated with a local group of assimilating lobes and sexual organs.
This long-drawn-out form may also branch. The prothallus of L. salakense
is also much elongated.

214 Transactions.

The question arises as to whether the ancestral type of prothallus was
compact and massive or long-drawn-out and delicate in nature. Being
situated at the surface of the ground, it would seem that the prothallus
would be short rather than filamentous. This would be in accord with
the fundamental structure-plan of the prothallus as seen in all the modern
Lycopodiaceous types, in which the lower first-formed vegetative region
has the form of an inverted cone, and apj)ears especially likely from the
fact that this form occurs not only in the Inundata-Cernua group but in
L. Selago also when the prothallus is surface-growing. However, on the
other hand, we are probably not to assume that the '" primary tubercle "
is a primitive feature, for it seems to be abundantly clear in the three
species L. cernuum, L. laterale, and especially L. ramulosum that these
tubercular swellings are due simply to the localized presence of a fungus
element which was, of course, not an original feature of the prothallus.
In the prothalli of the Selago, Phlegmaria, clavatum, and complanatum
types the increase in girth from the spore upwards is always rapid, there
being apparently no filamentous stage at all ; but this can be readily
explained by the fact that infection by the fungus seems there to take
place from the very beginning. Also in L. cernuum this is apparently the
rule, so that the tubercle constitutes the basal portion of the prothallus ;
but in L. laterale and L. ramulosum there is generally a well-marked fila-
mentous stage. The young prothalli of both these species are green from the
first and remain free from fungus for a considerable period, assuming during
this stage the form of an elongated flat filament of cells which shows no
localized tubercular swelling of its tissues. Even some of the largest and
most drawn-out forms of prothalli of L. ramulosum are seen to have their
basal region of this form (16, figs. 32b and 32d), the increase in girth of the
prothallus having taken place very gradually and the infection of it by the
fungus being not localized in one much-swollen region but distributed over
several distinct areas. Thus it is probable that the primitive, wholly self-
nourishing type of prothallus was filamentous rather than massive, and
that the erect growth and radial build came later as the result of the more
rapid development of the tissues consequent on the infection of the lower
region by the fungus element.

The " mixed " type of stelar anatomy with much-extended protoxylem
groups characteristic of the Inundata and Cernua sections is in striking
contrast with the definitely radial type which is the primary stelar
structure of the rest of the genus. This mixed type is initiated by the
precedence of the leaf -trace system over the cauline cylinder in the young
plant, but is marked throughout the whole life of the plant. This
character, along with others that have been mentioned, gives to the
Immdata-Cernua group a position definitely apart from the other sections
of the genus.

Thus, although some of the main characters of the species of these two
sections are probably recent and adaptive, especially as regards the external
form and habit of growth of the sporophyte, others are undoubtedly
primitive. Also, the possession of a protocorm stage in the embryogeny,
and the mixed type of stelar anatomy, brand these sections as together
standing very much apart from the other sections, which, as we have seen,
are probably somewhat closely interrelated. Being thus primitive in some
respects and modified in others, the Inundata and Cernua sections are best
considered to be a natural division of the genus whose ancestors diverged
from the ancestors of the Selago stock at a probably early period.

HoT.i.owAY. — Studies i/i the IS'ew Zealand Species of Lycopodinm. 215

Literature consulted.

1. Baker, J. G., Handbook oj the Fern Allies, London, 1887.

:'. Boodle, L. A., On the Structure of the Stem in Two Species of Lycopodium, Anv.

of Bot., vol. 14, pp. 315-17, 1900.
;{. Bower, F. O., The Origin of a Latnl Flora, 1908.

4. On the Natural Classification of Plants, as exemplified in the Filicales

(Hooker Lecture), Jour. Linn. Soc, vol. 44, pp. 107-24, 1918.

5. Brtjchmann, H., Vber die Proihallien und die Keimjiflafizen mehrerer europdischer

Lycopodien, Gotha. 1898.

6. Das Prothallium von Lyropoditnn complanatiun L., Bot. Zrit-'<ch., vol. 66.

pp. 169-81, 1908.

7. Chamberlain, C. J., Prothallia and Sporelings of Three New Zealand Species of

Lycopodium, Bot. Gaz.. vol. 63, No. 1, pp. 51-65, 1917.

8. Cheeseman, T. F., Manual of the New Zealand Flora, Wellington, 1906.

9. Illustrations of the New Zealand Flora. Wellington, 1914.

10. Cockayne. L., Observations concerning Evolution derived from Ecological Studies

in New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 44, pp. 1-50, 1912.

11. CoLENSO. W., On a New Species of Lycopodium, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 19, p. 275,

1887.

12. Edgerley, K. v.. The Prothalli of Three New Zealand Lycopods, Trans. N.Z.

Inst., vol. 47, pp. 94-111, 1915.

13. Engler, a, and Prantl, K., Pflanzenfamilien, I Teil, iv Abteilung, Lycopodiaceae

(Pritzel), 1900.

14. GoEBEL, K., Organograr)hy, pt. ii, 1st ed., Eng. transl., 1905.

15. HoLLOWAY, J. E., A Comparative Study of the Anatomy of Six New Zealand Species

of Lycopodium, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, pp. 356-70, 1910.

16. Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lycopodium, Part I, Travis.

N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 253-303, 1916.

17. Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lycopodium, Part II, Methods

of Vegetative Propagation, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 80-93, 1917.
18. Hooker, J. D., Flora Antarctica, vol. 1, 1844.
19. Flora Novae-Zelandiae, vol. 2.

20. Flora Tasmaniae, vol. 2.

21. Jones, C. E., The Morphology and Anatomy of the Stem of the Genus Lycopodium,

Trans. Linn. Soc, ser. 2, Bot. vol. 7, pp. 15-35, 1905.

22. Kirk, T., Description of a New Species of Lycopodium, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 2,

pp. 4.56-57, 1879.

23. On Lycopodium varium R. Br. and Lycopodium Billardieri iSpring, with a

Description of a New Form, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 17, pp. 376-77, 1884.

24. Lang, W. H., The Prothallus of Lycopodium clavatum, Ann. of Bot., vol. 13,

pp. 279-317, 1899.

25. Spessard, E. a.. Prothallia of Lycopodium in America, Bot. Gaz., vol. 63. No. 1,

pp. 66-76, 1917.

26. Prothallia of Lycopodium in America (a Correction), Bot. Gaz., April, 1918.

27. Sykes, M. G., Notes on the Morphology of the Sporangium-bearing Organs of the

Lycopodiaceae, New Phytologist, vol. 7, pp. 41-60, 1908.

28. A Correction, Neiv Phytologist, vol. 8, 1909.

29. Thomas, A. P. W., Preliminary Account of the ProthaUium of Phylloglossum , Proc.

Boy. Soc, vol. 69, i)p. 285-91, 1901-2.

30. Treub, M., Some W^crds on the Life-history of Lycopods, An?}, of Bot., vol. 1,

pp. 119-23, 1887.

31. Wigglesworth, G., The Young Sporophytes of Lycopodium complanatum and

L. clavatum, Ann. of Bot., vol. 21, pp. 211-34, 1907.

Postscript (May, 1919).

Since this paper was written I have observed in the southern-beech
forest on Mount Greenhind, Westland, L. varium growing in extensive
patches on the forest-floor in a similar manner to what I have described
as occurring in Stewart Island. In one instance the clump of plants grew
on the edge of a rock, and instead of the plants being rigidly upright
in growth, with the characteristic short-curved strobili of the typical

21 6 . Transactions.

L. varium, they were lax and pendulous and long-drawn-out, and the
fertile regions of the stem were as little differentiated as is the case in the
plant L. BiUardieri var. gracile. It was only the fact that L. varium was
abundant over the whole locality and that L. BiUardieri and the variety
(jracile were altogether absent which indicated that this particular clumj)
of plants belonged to the former species, for in habit of growth they showed
the BiUardieri form and in the nature of the strobilus that of gracile. It
would seem to follow from this that these three species are best to be
distinguished from one another by the particular stations that they
normally adopt, rather than by their habit of growth or nature of the
fertile region, for the latter characters are very variable. It must be added,
however, that the strobilus seems to be more fixed in form in L. BiUardieri
than in the other two species. This particular clump of L. varium was
further noteworthy by reason of the fact that nearly all the pendulous
fertile branches showed rejuvenation at their tips. These new shoots were
precisely similar in appearance to young normally - developed plantlets,
and presented a marked and sudden contrast to the fertile branches from
jwhich they arose. Moreover, close to the base of the new shoots one or
more roots were borne, which, in the case of those branches which reached
to the ground, had begun to ramify in the soil. It is possible that the large
clumps of this ground-growing species owe their spread a great deal to
this mode of vegetative propagation.

I have found, also, L. ramulosmn on the summit of Mount Greenland,
at a height of about 3,000 ft., associated in damp peaty places with
Cladium teretifolium, very stunted Leptospermum scoparium, and cushions
of PhijlJachne clavigera. The Lycopodium was here densely matted, and
of a very short, creeping, and much-branched form, the numerous cones
being about ^ in. long, and borne on stiffly erect branchlets J in. to |- in.
high. In sheltered spots in this locality the plants were, on the contrary,
of a more lax and drawn-out form, and bore verv few or no cones.
(See Cockayne, 10, p. 17.)

Akt. XXI. — Notes on the Birds of South-western Otago.

By ALrRED Philpott.

[Read before the Otago / nstitute, 10th December, 19 IS ; received by Editor, 27th
December, 19 IH ; issued separately, 20th June, 1919.]

AVhile engaged in entomological field-work I liave had frequent oppor-
tunities of observing the habits of our birds, and a series of notes taken
during the last six years forms the foundation of the present article. While
it is indisputable that many of the native birds are doomed to extinction,
it is also true that others are adapting themselves to the changed condi-
tions brought about by the settlement of the country and the introduction
of other forms of life. Such species as the bell-bird, the grey warbler, and
the fantail may be seen daily in plantations within a few minutes' walk
of the centre of the town of Invercargill, and it is not unlikely that as time
goes on these birds will become quite independent of the native forest.

In nomenclature I have followed that adopted by Mathews and Iredale
in their " Keference List of the Birds of New Zealand," as summarized by
Benham in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. 46, p. 188.

Philpott. — Birds of South-xvestern Otago. 217

BOWDLERIIDAE.

South Island Fern-bird {Bowdleria punctata punctata Quoy and

Gaimard).

This species is becoming very rare in Southland ; I have not met with
it for six or seven years. In the summer of 1913-14, in company with
Mr. R. Gibb, I visited Stewart Island, and among the manuka scrub on
the Rakiahua Fiat we found the bird abundant.

MUSCICAPIDAE.
South Island Tit {Mijiomoira macrocephala macrocephala Gmelin).

Observations on the habits of the South Island tit point to the con-
cmsion that it mates for life. During the winter a male and female are
often to be seen in company, and I have seen the male giving food to the
female as early as the first week in August. In the spring much fighting
goes on between the cock birds, but the quarrelling is not confined to that
season ; on several occasions a pair of males were observed fighting in the
presence of a female in the late autumn and winter. The tit is certainly
holding its own wherever the native forest is still standing. It is equally
common in the Nothofagus forest at 3,000 ft. and the mixed forest at sea-
level.

South Island Robin {Miro australis australis Sparrman).

In considering the problem of the diminution in numbers of New Zea-
land birds the case of the South Island robin offers some peculiar features.
While the bird has disappeared from large areas remote from settlement,
it is still to be found in several districts in close proximity to farming,
n\ining, and timber-working activities. Though the coastal forest from
beyond the Waiau to Preservation Inlet — many hundreds of thousands
of acres — does not now apparently contain a single robin, the bird still
holds out in certain localities comparatively close to towns. If the stoat
and weasel were alone responsible for the scarcity of the robin we should
expect to find outlying districts more favourable to its safety ; certainly
the writer's experience is that the stoat is much more common in the
neighbourhood of cultivation. From 1914 to 1917 I visited the Hunter
Mountains each year in January, ascending through the Titiroa Forest from
Monowai Flat. In 1914 the robin was common in the lower bush ; in the
following year only a few were about ; on the third trip only a single bird
was heard ; and in 1917 there was no sign of the species at all. I am unable
to suggest a reason for such rapid disappearance. On the Monowai Flat
rabbits are very plentiful, and cats and stoats are probably not uncommon.
The part of the Titiroa Forest in question is attached to Sunnyside Station,
and the owner, Mr. H. Cuthbert, informs me that nearer the homestead
the robin is still to be found. In Stewart Island in 1913 I found the bird
plentiful on Rakiahua and Table Hill, but it is not in evidence near Half-
moon Bay and other settled districts.

South Island Grey Warbler {Maorigerygone igata igata Quoy and

Gaimard).

The grey warbler is a bird which 1 think will adapt itself to the new
conditions attendant upon the settlement of the country. It frequents
orchards and plantations, and several instances of its nesting in fruit-trees
and macrocarpa hedges have come vmder my notice.

218 Transactions.

A j)oint worth investigating is the variation in the song of this bird in
different localities. The notes of the Longwoods bird vary a little from
those of the Seaward Bush songster, but the song of the Titiroa Forest
bird is altogether different. It consists mainly of a beautiful descending
trill. Possibly, however, the Titiroa form belongs to the subspecies sylvestris
Potts.

In the work of nest-building the female warbler does practically all
the work. The male may be heard singing near at hand, and occasionally
he may visit the site and bring with him a fragment of material, but the
bulk of the work is left to his mate. The beautiful domed nest does not, as
is popularly imagined, hang suspended from a twig, but is securely stayed
in position, one or more stout sprays passing through the thick lower portion.
Though occasionally conspicuous, it is usually well concealed, and is not
infrequently hidden in quite dense growth. A thin framework of the nest
is first put together, much cobweb being used to bind the materials. When
this stage is completed the lining-material is thrust through the aperture,
and at intervals the hen bird enters the structure and may be seen vigorously
moving about, the walls of the nest being pushed out in all directions as she
arranges and consolidates the inner layers. In Southland, if the weather
is not unfavourable, nest-building commences early in September, and at
least two broods are reared during the season.

South Island Fantail (Rhipidura flabellifera flabellifera Gmelin).

On reference to my notes I find that more than a dozen instances of the
crossing of pied and black fantails have come under my observation during
the past ten years. Only a few instances in which both birds were pied,
and but one case in which both parents were black, have been noticed during
the same period. I entertain no doubt that we have here an interesting
case of dimorphism, and that consequently the tw^o forms should be placed
under one species. An analysis of ten broods of mixed parentage gives
the following results : —

Black. Pied. Total.

1 1 2

12 3

1 2 3

12 3

2 1 3

1 3 4

13 4

2 2 4
2 2 4
2 3 5

14 21 35

I was, unfortunately, unable to ascertain the particulars of th(^ brood
of which both parents were black, the birds having disappeared during
my absence from the locality.

Both parents work industriously at the building of the nest, but I think
that the female is the leading spirit. On one occasion I observed the male
bring a fiake of fuchsia-bark and deposit it in the nest, but on the hen
bird's next visit she picked this out and carried it several yards away. In
hot weather the nestlings suffer much from the heat, and lie with their

Philpott. — Birds of South-wesferti Otago. 219

heads thrust over the edge of the nest and their beaks wide open. They are
also often overrun with hundreds of minute acarids, and the parents seek to
abate this annoyance by picking off all they can see on each visit with food.
An instance of unusual vigour in nest-building may be worth recording.
On the 3rd September, 1917, I found a pair — black and pied — commencing
to build a nest. By the 9th they had ceased working at it, and it appeared
to be completed, though from the situation I could not make sure of this.
On the 16th the pair began another nest about 12 yards away from the first,
but work on this was carried on for only about half a day, when another
site was selected near it. This third nest was beautifully finished by the
23rd, but the birds never used it, choosing still another site, where they again
built, liatching out their eggs on the 22nd October. The nestlings left the
nest on the 3rd November, and on the 8th I found the black fan (the hen
bird) at work on another nest. This was lower down than any fantail's
nest that I have seen, being only about 4 ft. from the ground. Within a
yard of it was another nest, nearly completed, and once the bird alighted
on this and did a little work at it. The first egg was laid on the 11th, and
one on each of the following days till four were deposited. The young
birds left the nest on the 12th December, but previous to this the pied
parent had disappeared. A young black bird, presumably one of the former
brood, began to assist in feeding the brood, and by the 7th January this
pair of blacks had built a nest and had young birds hatched out. As
mentioned above, I was unable to keep any further watch on this pair.

PARIDAE.
Brown Creeper {Finschia novaeseelandiae Gmelin).

Though becoming rather rare in the smaller bush areas, the brown
creeper is still common in the larger forests. In the upper portion of
Titiroa Forest it is very abundant, and in the Longwood and west-coast
blocks it is also plentiful.

Yellowhead {Mohoua ochrocephala Gmelin).

The yellowhead disappeared from the neighbourhood of Invercargill
about ten years ago. West of the Waiau River it is not uncommon in
suitable portions of the coastal forest, and it is abundant in Titiroa.
I have not met with it on the Longwoods.

MELIPHAGIDAE.

Bell-bird {Anthornis melanura melanura Sparrman).

It is gratifying to find that this charming songster, which at one time
was thought to be in danger of extinction, is now one of the most common
of the indigenous bush-birds. The smallest patch of forest usually supports
one or two individuals, and orchards and gardens in the centre of the
town are regularly visited. An instance of what appears to have been
an individual variation in the song of this bird came under my notice in
December, 1917. While camping, in company with Mr. C. C. Fenwick,
at the Wairaurahiri River, a bird kept up an incessant short song, con-
sisting of three bell-like notes in a descending scale. It was quite different
from anything I had heard in any other locality. On returning to the same
spot a year later exactly the same pleasing melody was heard nearly all
day long ; probably it was the same bird.

220 Transactions.

Tui {Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae novaeseelandiae Gmelin).

The tui is not uncommon in the large forest areas, but appears to
favour the lowland mixed type ; not many are to be met with in the
Nothofagus mountain blocks.

ZOSTEROPIDAE.

White-eye {Zosterops lateralis tasmanica Mathews).

The white-eye appears to build about the end of October in this district.
Apparently partial migration takes place in the winter, as the large flocks
which may be seen in the late autumn are represented by only twos and
threes in the spring. A great many, however, fall victims to the cat while
they are searching the vegetables and small-fruit trees for insects.

MOTACILLIDAE.
South Island Pipit [Anthus novaeseelandiae novaeseelandiae Gmelin).

Not uncommon in the open country round Invercargill. It is strange
that this bird, which nests and roosts on the ground, does not succumb
to the stoat in a district where these animals are so plentiful. On the
Hunter Mountains, at an elevation of 3,000 ft. to 4,000 ft., the pipit is
common, and I am of opinion that these alpine birds are much lighter in
colour than those found on the low country.

ACANTHISITTIDAE.
Rifleman {Acanthisitta chloris chloris Sparrman).

Plentiful in all forests, and extending to the bush-level on the mountains.
I have never met with one in the open or seen one flying from forest to
forest.

ALCEDINIDAE.

Kingfisher {Sauropatis sanctus forsteri Mathews and Iredale).

About the middle of September a few kingfishers always visit the
outskirts of the bush districts, and may be seen and heard among the
scattered trees in the fields. During the winter they either migrate north-
wards or retire to the coastal areas.

CUCULIDAE.
Shining Ouckoo {Lamprococcyx lucidus Gmelin).

The shining cuckoo and the long-tailed cuckoo {Urodynamis taitensis
Sparrman) are certainly not so common as formerly near settlement, but
their rarity is simply the result of the clearing of the forest. In the
untouched forest areas both species are abundant in their season. In
the hill country the long-tailed species is common at all elevations, but
I have not met with th(^ shining cuckoo above 2,000 ft.

BUBONIDAE.

MoREPORK [Spiloglaux novaeseelandiae novaeseelandiae Gmelin).

Throughout the winter months for the past four years a morepork
has lived in a small piece of bush within the Invercargill boundary.
During the day he could almost always be found perched under some tree-
fern fronds. Frequently several kinds of small birds would gather round

Philpott. — Birds of South-western Of ago. 221

and mob him, but he took very little notice of them. In the spring and
summer the bird was never to be found on the usual perch, which seems
to indicate that the morepork pairs for the nesting season only. It is
popularly supposed that this owl shelters by day in a hole in a tree, but
I have on many occasions surprised the bird by day, and always found it
perched under tree-fern fronds or in similarly shaded situations.

Wherever any forest is still standing the morepork is not uncommon.
A few years ago I had the good fortune to come upon a brood of young
birds which had just left the nest. They were perched on a dead limb,
and both parents were busy catching moths and other insects for them.
1 think it very probable that the old birds largely supplement their own
diet with such large insects as they can catch.

NESTORIDAE.

Kea (Nestor notabilis Gould).

The kea is common on the Hunter Mountains, where its numbers seem
to be on the increase. Contrary to the experience of flock-owners in other
localities, Mr. H. Cuthbert, who utilizes Mount Burns and Cleughearn,
informs me that the birds have never to his knowledge interfered with his
sheep. During several visits to the Hunters in January of each year I
paid special attention to the food of the kea. In January, 1917, the
mountain-flax {Phormium Cookianum) was in flower, and little flocks of
keas might daily be found sucking the nectar from the blossoms. On more
than one occasion keas were observed breaking oft' and splitting up the
flower-stalks of the celmisias. The soft central portion of the stalk seemed
to be the part desired, for, though I examined the refuse in order to
ascertain if it was caterpillars or some other form of insect-life that the
bird was after, I could find no trace of such. The gizzards, however, of a
few which were captured showed that insects formed a large proportion
of their food, remains of the larvae of Cicadae being plentiful. Though the
kea may often be seen stripping off the lichen and moss from the branches
of trees, the bird does not seem to bore into and break up decayed wood
as its congener the kaka does ; probably Nothofagus logs do not contain
sufficient insect-life to make it worth while.

During the greater part of the day the keas frequented the open hills,
but in the mornings and evenings they were to be found about the upper
edge of the forest, and they passed the night in the trees. On sunny days,
generally about four in the afternoon, they took what appeared to be
pleasure flights. They would circle about in companies, breaking up and
re-forming again, swooping down towards the ground and soaring up again,
and crossing and recrossing each other's paths with excited cries. The
kaka has the same pleasing habit.

Though I have found the kea very inquisitive and given to the investi-
gation of every strange object, I have not met with any instances of that
extreme playfulness recorded by some observers.

Kaka {Nestor meridionalis meridionalis Gmelin).

Abundant in the coastal forest beyond the Waiau River ; it ascends
as high as the bush-line, but is most common in the mixed forest near the
sea. In the Titiroa Forest it is not plentiful, even in the lower areas. In
Stewart Island the back country still yields a refuge, but near the settled
areas the bird is scarce. The smaller forests are now practically forsaken

222 Transactions.

by tkis interesting parrot. In 1913 a very handsome variety was shot in
Stewart Island. The specimen, which is now in the Southland Musemn,
has the forehead dull leaden grey ; the crown and nape are scarlet, each
feather being tipped with olive-brown ; the feathers of the neck and pectoral
band are broadly margined with yellow ; the back and scapulars are scarlet,
with crescentic olive-brown marks ; the wings are scarlet mixed with olive,
the primaries being olive-grey ; the rump and upper tail-coverts are
scarlet ; the tail-feathers are dark olive, basal half pale scarlet, tips olive-
grey ; the ear-coverts are faintly yellow ; the lores, cheeks, and throat
are dark olive, the cheek-feathers being centred with pink ; the breast is
scarlet mixed with olive, the flanks, abdomen, and under tail-coverts being
almost wholly scarlet.

CACATUIDAE.
Parrakeets {Cyanorhampfms).

The three species of Cyanorhamphus which were once so common in
Otago are now seldom seen or heard in any of the smaller forests. Cyano-
rhamphus malherhi Souance, which was never so abundant as the other two,
is in all probability extinct, but the red-fronted and yellow-fronted species
still occur far back in the great timbered areas. It is very noticeable that
these remaining birds are much more timid than the parrakeets of the
early days. They seem to frequent the tall trees only, and are much more
often heard than seen. Between thirty and forty years ago the parrakeet
fed freely on the low berry-bearing shrubs, and frequently hunted about
on the ground for fallen seeds. They were so tame that a boy with a
" shanghai " could soon make a fair bag ; but now it would be difficult
to get within gun range. Possibly this acquired timidity will prove the
salvation of the species. Two specimens of C. malherhi are in the collection
of the Southland Museum, and the yellow varieties of C. novaezelandiae
novaezelandiae and C. auriceps auriceps referred to by Sir Walter Buller
{Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 29, p. 188) are also still in good condition.

TRERONIDAE.

Woou-PIGEON {Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae novaeseelandiae Gmelin).

The pigeon is still plentiful except near settlement. Orchards near the
Titiroa Forest are visited when the cherries are ripe, and such large birds
exact a heavy toll upon the owners of the trees. In the open glades on the
Hunter Mountains above 3,000 ft. I found this beautiful bird feeding on
the berries of Coprosma rugosa. In fine weather they appear to feed in the
morning and evening, and to rest in the shade during the hottest part of
the day.

RALLIDAE.

Black Weka {Gallirallus hrachypterus Lafresnaye).

It is pleasant to be able to record the fact that the black weka is
undoubtedly becoming more plentiful in the Fiord County forest. While
gold-mining operations were being carried on at Preservation Inlet, with
the attendant traffic along the Orepuki-Preservation track, the weka
naturally became scarce in that locality. Many were killed for food, and
many more were destroyed needlessly by the miners' dogs. In 1911, by

Phili'OTT. — Birds of Suutli-western Otaijo. 223

which time there was little activity at the inlet, I found that the black
weka had recovered to a great extent from its persecution, and was
to be found in fair numbers from the coast to the western bank of the
Wairaurahiri Eiver. On the east side of the river only a few were to be met
with. In the summer of 1916-17 the bird was found to be abundant to
the west of the Wairaurahiri, and common on the eastern side, occurring,
though in diminishing numbers, almost to BlueclifF. By the summer of
1917-18 they were common at Bluecliff and beyond, one or two being
heard within a few miles of the settlement of Papatotara. Even at the
top of the forest on the Hump Ridge a pair were present^ — the first seen
there by the writer, though the spot had been visited five or six times
since 1911.

During the last spring and summer a plague of mice has occupied this
western forest. While an odd mouse or two might always be found about
the huts on the track, there has never been, in my experience, anything
approaching the number present on this occasion. They were everywhere —
■on the sea-beach and the hill-tops, in the huts, on the track, and in the
dense bush. Very probably their numbers accounted in some degree for
the spread of the weka ; the birds were snap})ing them up on every oppor-
tunity, the victims being swallowed whole, head first. On the beach I saw
the wekas picking up many small crustaceans (sand-hoppers) ; the large
stag-beetles [Lissotes) also formed part of their diet.

Stewart Island Weka [Gallirallus australis scotti Grant).

In the back country of Stewart Island this species is still fairly common.
My experience with this bird leads me to regard it as much less vigorous
and enterprising than the black weka. 1 should imagine that the latter
species, if introduced into the same region, would soon exterminate the
former.

PuKEKO {Porphyrio melanonotus stanleyi Rowley).

The pukeko is one of our birds which is in danger of extinction. Few
-are to be found now, even in localities remote from settlement.

ARDEIDAE.
White Heron {Herodias alba maoriana Mathews and Iredale).

Two very fine specimens, in spring plumage, are in the Southland
Museum. These, I learn from Mr. James Hunter, were shot by Mr. J. Fox
at Kew, near the mouth of Kingswell's Creek, in the year 1875. As showing
that the bird was not then regarded as very rare, it may be mentioned that
the museum authorities purchased the skins for 10s. each. In the early
" eighties " the writer remembers seeing a white heron near the Waihopai
River, where the buildings of Collingwood now stand.

White-fronted Heron {Notophoyx novaehollandiae Latham).

The white-fronted heron is exceedingly rare, but a specimen was shot
near Invercargill during the present spring.

Bittern [Botaurus poeciloj)tilus melanotus Grey).

About ten or twelve years ago the bittern was not uncommon in swampy
localities near Invercargill. The draining and reclamation of these areas
has driven the bird farther back, and it is now rarely seen.

224 Transactions.

HAEMATOPODIDAE.
Redbill (Haematopus niger unicolor Forster).
Along the coast, wherever masses of rock are to be found in conjunction
with sandy shores, the redbill is not uncommon.

CHARADRIIDAE.
Dotterel {Pluviorhynchus obscurus Gmelin).
Seldom seen on the mainland. In Stewart Island it occurs in fair
numbers, nesting on the dunes near the sea and visiting the bare tops of the
high country.

RECUR VmOSTRIDAE.

Pied Stilt {Himantopus leucocephalus alba EUman).
The pied stilt seems to be in no danger of extinction. A flock of about
fifty was observed recently on the mud-flats of the New River Estuary,
and pairs and small groups may frequently be met with in shingly river-
beds and other suitable situations.

SCOLOPACIDAE.
Oriental Whimbrel {Numenius variegatus Salvadori).

In the collection of the Southland Museum is an examj)le of this species.
It was shot on the New River Estuary in 1907, being in company with a
flock of god wits.

LARIDAE.
White-fronted Tern {Sterna striata striata Gmelin).

This very common tern breeds at several rocky stations along the coast.
In the middle of December I found numerous eggs and a few young birds
just hatched. No attempt at a nest is made, the egg being laid on the
sandy grit in the hollows of the rocks. The parent bird will not aUow any
other species to approach the breeding-place ; a pair of paradise ducks
wliich were swimming in the sea near the rocks were set upon, and com-
pelled to dive repeatedly in order to escape their tormentors, and on more
than one occasion a harrier which had only come within several hundred
yards of the nestery found itself vigorously attacked. It was surprising to
see the hawk retreat, without the least show of defence, from a bird less
than half its size.

Art. XXII. — Descriptions of New Species of Lepidoptera.

By Alfred Philpott.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 10th December, 1918 ; received by Editor, 27th
December. 1918 ; issued separately, 20th June, 1919.]

Pyraustidae.
Scoparia illota n. sp.

<S $. 18-20 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous-brown mixed with
grey. Antennae fuscous, ciliations very short. Abdomen grey, anal tuft
ochreous. Legs fuscous, posterior pair paler, apex of tarsal joints narrowly
whitish. Forewings elongate, triangular, blackish-fuscous, densely irro-
rated with white : first line broad, curved, bluntly angled at middle, white;

Philpott. — New Species of JA'pidopfera. 225

second line distinct, sinuate beneath casta, thence almost straight inwardly-
oblique to dorsum, white ; subterminal broad, widely and deeply indented
at middle, white : cilia grey with fuscous median and subapical lines.
Hindwings grey, infuscated round teniien : cilia as in forewings but paler.

Nearest "S. ct/ptastis Meyr., from which it differs in the more strongly
curved first line, and in the second line being sinuate, not indented, beneath
costa. It may be regarded as the forest representative of cyptastis.

I took one specimen at Cromarty (Preservation Inlet) in March, 1911.
In December, 1917, Mr. C. E. Clarke and myself found it not uncommon
from Blue Cliffs to Knife-and-Steel Boat-harbour. It is therefore probably
distributed throughout the coastal forest of Fiord County.

TORTRICIDAE.

Tortrix inusitata n. sp.

(S. 20-21 mill. Head and thorax brownish-ochreous. Palpi rather
long, fuscous-grey, tinged with ochreous outwardly. Antennae pale
ochreous with dark annulations, ciliations H. Abdomen ochreous-grey,
bright ochreous beneath, anal tuft blackish. Legs pale ochreous, tarsi
broadly annulated with black. Forewings triangular, costa moderately
arched, apex obtuse, termen sinuate, hardly oblique, tornal angle broadly
rounded, purplish-fuscous : a narrow basal patch bright ochreous, extending
along costa to about | ; extreme costal edge sometimes ochreous throughout ;
an outwardly-oblique dark striga obscurely indicated at | ; some undefined
dark dots on costa : cilia purplish-fuscous, paler round tornus. Hind-
wings ochreous-grey with numerous dark strigulae : cilia as in forewings
but paler.

Distinguished from T. excessana (Walk.), its nearest ally, by the strongly
contrasted basal patch.

Mr. C. E. Clarke has taken a few examples at Waitati, Dunedin, in forest,
in the months of October and November. I have taken a single specimeu
near Invercargill in November. Type in coll. C. E. Clarke.

Nepticulidae.
Nepticula lucida n. sp.

cj ?. 5| - 6|- mm. Head greyish - white. Antennae blat^k. Thorax
fuscous. Abdomen black. Legs greyish-black. Forewings in S elongate,
rather broad basally, apex broadly rounded, in $ lanceolate, shining dark
fuscous ; a broad outwardly -curved white band at ^ : cilia fuscous. Hind-
wings and cilia dull fuscous-black.

Differing from any described New Zealand members of the genus in the
dark coloration and the striking white band on forewings.

Discovered by Mr. C. E. Clarke. Several beaten from the foliage of
Nothofagus at Waitati (Dunedin) in November.

8 — Trans.

226 Transactions.

Art. XXIII. — Fauna of the Hampden Beds and Classification of the

Oamaru System.

By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.

[Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Institute, 7th December, 1918 ; received by
Editor, 30th December, 1918 ; issued separately, 16th July, 1919.]

Plates XV-XVII.

Contents. page

Descriptions of New Species of Fossil Mollusca found at Hampden . . . . 226

List of Hampden Mollusca . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

The Age of the Hampden Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Classification of the Oamaru System . . . . . . . . . . 239

Descriptions of New Species of Fossil Mollusca found at Hampden.
Circulus inornatus n. sp. (Plate XV, fig. 15.)

Sliell minute, round, 2| mm. in diameter. Spire almost plain, consisting
of three whorls only. Whorls increasing rather quickly in size and suture
strongly incised. Aperture of a broadly oval form. Surface quite smooth.
Umbilicus moderately wide.

A single specimen, in g^od condition. The entire absence of sculpture
distinguishes this from the other New Zealand species.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Cerithidea minuta n. sp. (Plate XV, fig. 11.)

Shell minute, 5 mm. by 2 mm. Spire tapering and composed of five
whorls which are slightly convex. Aperture oval, extending verv slightly
over the base, and produced anteriorly hito a short canal. Sculpture :
About nine low rounded radial ribs on each whorl, which are crossed by
four elevated sharp spiral ridges : these are more pronounced on the radial
ribs than elsewhere. Suture not deep and without a border. Body-whorl
with about twelve spiral ridges, which decrease on the base and extend
almost into the aperture.

One speciinen only, in good condition. I can find no record of Cerithidea
being found at a lower horizon than that of the Awamoa beds.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Cerithiella tricincta n. sp. (Plate XV, fig. 2.)

Shell small, 10 mm. by 3 mm., with a narrow turreted spire. Spire of
ten whorls, each of them distinctly convex, and slowly decreasing in
diameter. Suture very deep. Whorls with spiral and radial ornamentation.
Three raised spiral rounded ridges on each whorl, the lowest of them the
most prominent. They are crossed by seven radial ridges on the half-
whorl. At the points of intersection of the radial and spiral lines there are
distinct roimded knobs. Body-whorl not preserved. Columella smooth.

Suter remarks that this species is closely related to C. fidicula Suter
The sculpture of the present species is, however, far coarser, and there
are fewer radial lines. The diameter of the whorls also decreases more
rapidly.

One specimen only, imperfect, and embedded in the matrix.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Mak(:^hai,l. — FduiKt of the Hamitden Bah. 227

Turritella rudis n. sp. (Plate XVII, fig. 3.)

Shell small, the largest specimen 15 mm. by 6 mm. Sharply conical.
Whorls narrow. In a small specimen 7 mm. long there are eleven whorls.
Each whorl with some broad spiral ribs more or less broken into rounded
or blunt nodules in large numbers. In the higher whorls there is generally
only one of these ribs, nearly median in position, but in the lower whorls
there are generally four. The spaces between these ribs have a number
of fine spiral Lines. There are no axial riblets. Suture deep.

Several specimens, in good condition. The species is closely related to
7". ornata.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Submargarita ? tricincta n. sp. (Plate XV, fig. 14.)

Shell small, turbinate, slightly conic above. Whorls 3| to 4. Spire
very small ; protoconch depressed. The last whorl comparatively very
large, slightly angulated by the last three spiral riblets. The lower riblet
defines the basal area, which is contracted and slopingly convex. Sculp-
ture : On the body-whorl, in addition to the three principal riblets, there
are on the base a number of minute threadlets which vanish on approaching
the basal margin. Between the basal and middle principal spirals are
about five minute threadlets. The space above is narrower and has
two or three threadlets. Between the upper principal spiral and the
suture is a fairly wide area, sloping, slightly convex, and with four or
five threadlets ; irregular growth-striae cut the threadlets into minute
gemmules. The apex is somewhat eroded, and sculpture, if any, is not
determinable. Sutures somewhat impressed. Aperture roimded ; outer lip
slightly eftuse, more marked on the basal area. Columella narrow above,
then expanding into a stout freely projecting plate which unites with the
basal lip. Parietal wall thinly calloused, minutely perforate. Beneath the
outer calcareous layer the shell is somewhat iridescent. Height, 5-2.5 mm. ;
breadth, 5 mm.

This species was submitted to the late Mr. Suter, and he suggested its
inclusion in Submargarita. There is one example only, and it appears to
be adult and not the juvenile of Turbo or Astraea.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

This description was kindly written by Mr. Murdoch.

Erato antiqua n. sp. (Plate XV, fig. 7.)

Shell small, 4^ mm. by 3J mm. Broadly oval, but slightly produced
anteriorly. Aperture almost linear, but rather wider in the anterior than
in the posterior portion. Outer lip much thickened, with numerous denticles.
Spire comjiletely covered by the body-whorl and a posterior callosity.
Surface quite smooth and polished.

One specimen only, in good condition. The small size and absence of
a distinct spire distinguish this species from E. neozelanica Suter. This
is the only other species of the genus which has been found in New Zealand.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Epitonium tenuispiralis n. sp. (Plate XVII, fig. 6.)

Complete shell not available. Four whorls of the spire only, which
measure 10 mm. by 5 mm. The whorls taper rather rapidly. Radial ribs
slightly rounded, })rominent, about fourteen on each whorl. Interstices
8*

228 Transactions.

rather wider than the ribs. Both ribs and interstices are crossed by a
large number of exceedingly fine spiral lines.

Although the specimen is extremely fragmentary, the very distinct
sculpture justifies its description under a specific name.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Turbonilla antiqua n. sp. (Plate XV, fig. 10.)

Shell small, and only the lower four whorls remain in the single speci-
men which was found. Length, 8 mm. ; width, \\ mm. The whorls taper
very gradually, and the entire shell must have a considerable length
relative to its breadth. Whorls nearly flat in outline, but suture rather deep.
About twenty-two straight transverse ribs on each whorl, but no spiral
sculpture. On the body- whorl the transverse ribs do not extend over the
base. Columella with a slight umbilicus. Inner lip thickened at its base
with a small fold. Outer lip rather thick. The gradual taper of the whorls
and the fold on the columella distinguish this species from those that
have been described in New Zealand.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Dicroloma zelandica n. sp. (Plate XV, fig. 16.)

Shell of moderate size. Length, 28 mm. ; breadth, 9 mm. Spire of five
convex whorls rapidly decreasing in size. Suture shallow. Beak not
complete, but apparently about two-thirds the length of the shell. The
whorls with numerous slightly raised spiral threads ; there are twelve on
the penultimate whorl : these are crossed by numerous low radial lines
which are strongly bent backwards in the middle. Body-whorl with spiral
striation more distinct, but no radial lines can be distinguished. At the
very beginning of the body-whorl a keel starts to develop a little above
the crown of the convexity of the whorl. A little farther forward another
keel is developed slightly below the crown of the convexity. The two
keels are separated by four spiral lines. The two keels rapidly increase
in prominence, and where they reach the outer lip they extend into two
large wings. The anterior wing is at first directed forward in direct con-
tinuation of the keel ; 10 mm. distant from the outer lip it bends through
a right angle and, extending for 9 mm., it terminates apparently near the
end of the beak. The other keel also ends in a wing, which at first proceeds
outward in a continuation of the direction of the keel, then bends gradually
downward, and ends about 15 mm. from the penultimate whorl.

Several specimens have been found, but none of them show the aperture
and wings in a good state of preservation. The first one that was found
was small, but was worked out of the matrix in a satisfactory state.
Unfortunately, it was completely smashed when it was sent through the post
to Mr. Suter.' Another specimen (Plate XV, fig. 16). found in 1918, showed
the spire fairly complete, but the greater part of the wings is absent, though
the impression of them is quite clear in the matrix. The impression has been
coloured white in order to show more clearly in the photograph. The beak
also was detached, and a small amount of the material has been lost.
I think, however, that there is no doubt as to the generic position, and
in this Mr. Murdoch agrees with me. The species is probably closely allied
to D. myurus Desl. (Cossmann, Essais de Paleoconchologie comparee, vol. 6,
p. 85, pi. 6, fig. 1). The genus Dicroloma has not hitherto been definitely
recorded from a higher horizon than the Upper Jurassic (Portlandian),

Marshall. — Fauna of the Hampden Beds. 229

though a doubtful species, highly imperfect, is mentioned by Dickerson
from the Tejon of CaUfornia.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Fusinus altus n. sp. (Plate XVI, fig. 5.)

Shell of moderate size, narrowly fusiform. Length, 60 mm. ; width,
17 mm. Spire of seven whorls, gradually tapering ; each whorl strongly
convex, adorned with twelve broad transverse ribs which extend to the
anterior but not to the posterior suture : they are much stronger on th(^
suture than elsewhere. About twelve strong spiral striae on each whorl,
but they are much stronger near the carina than elsewhere. There are
often much smaller striae intercalated between the larger ones. Aperture
not complete, but moderately wide. Outer lip with well-marked internal
ribs. Beak long, with spiral striation similar to that of the rest of the shell.

This species is rather slender, but approaches more closely to F. kai-
paraensis than to any other. The radial ornamentation, however, is much
less pronounced, and the carina is much less marked. The shell is also
considerably narrower.

A single specimen, not well preserved.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Latirus dubius n. sp. (Plate XVI, fig. 6.)

Shell of moderate size, 33 mm. by 10 mm., narrowly fusiform. Spire
of four whorls, each of them strongly convex. Aperture incomplete, but
terminating in a short canal which is bent sharply upwards. Inner lip
wide, and extending forward beyond the columella for two-thirds of its
length. Columella with two well-developed folds. Outer lip wanting.
On each whorl a number of radial ribs — generally fourteen : these are
moderately high and rounded, and extend from suture to suture. On the
upper third of each whorl a number of fine spiral lines. On the lower two-
thirds of each whorl there are five strong spiral lines which are much raised
where they cross the radial ribs. Between the strong spirals there are a
number of fine spirals similar to those in the upper part of the whorl.

One specimen only, rather imperfect. I have some hesitation in
following the late Mr. Suter's advice and classing this species in the genus
Latirus.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Belophos incertus n. sp. (Plate XV, fig. 3.)

Shell small, shortly fusiform, 15 mm. by 9 mm. Spire of four whorls,
rapidly decreasing. Each whorl witli about 22 radial ridges, which are
slightly raised and somewhat prominent on the carina. Carina quite
prominent, and whorls almost shouldered ; suture impressed. About five
small threads between the carina and the anterior suture. Body- whorl with
radial ridges far less pronounced than those on the spire, and towards the
aperture they degenerate into growth-lines. Spiral lines numerous and
distinct, especially towards the end of the siphon. Aperture semi-lunar.
Outer lip thin but arched. Inner lip without any callosity. Columella
slightly bent backwards.

The genus Belophos has not previously been recorded from New Zealand,
but it has been found in the Eocene of Australia.

A single specimen, in good condition.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

230 Transactions.

Volutoderma zelandica ii. .sp. (Plate XVII, figs, -i, 5.)

Shell small. Length, 12 mm. ; width, 5 mm. Spire incomplete ; por-
tions of the first and jsecond wiiorls alone remain. Whorls rather rapidly
decreasing. Aperture prolonged anteriorly into a moderatel}' long siphon
which is bent backward towards its extremity. Each whorl with a distinct
ridge bordering the posterior suture. Six prominent costae on each whorl,
which are most pronounced near the keel ; they extend forward to the
anterior suture, but do not reach the posterior one. Five small spiral ridges
on each whorl crossed by numerous growth -lines. On the body- whorl the
costae are little more than tubercles on the carina. The growth-lines are
numerous and distinct, but spiral lines are visible near the end of the siphon
only. Columella with one prominent plait. The growth-lines indicate that
there is a moderately deej:) sinus between the suture and the keel. The
aperture is too imperfect in the specimens to show this feature. I am
indebted to the late Mr. Suter for provisionally classifying this species.
Two specimens, somewhat imperfect, in the Wanganui Museum.

Marginalia aveniformis n. sp. (Plate XV, fig. 8.)

Shell small, 6 mm. b}' 2J mm., narrowly oval. Spire of three whorls,
rapidly decreasing. Aperture about two-thirds the length of the shell.
Spire short ; whorls convex in outline, but suture only slightly marked.
Surface perfectly smooth and polished. Aperture narrow, with a slight
anterior canal. Columella with four narrow folds, the two posterior of
which are nearly at righIP angles to the columella, but the two anterior ones
are highly oblitj[ue. Outer lip swollen, and furnished with a number of
denticles on its inner margin.

A single specimen, in good condition. The spire is longer than that of
other New Zealand species.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Turris politus ii. sp. (Plate XVII. fig. 9.)

Shell small, 10 mm. by 4 mm., with a polished surface. Spire consists
of six strongly keeled whorls. Seventeen small rounded tubercles on the
carina of each whorl. Growth-lines extend upwards from the tubercles,
and where they intersect the raised anterior border of the suture there is
another series of much smaller tubercles. There are no spiral markings on
the portion of the whorl between the posterior suture and the keel. On the
keel there is a small spiral furrow which intersects all the tubercles. There
are four other small furrows between the keel and the anterior suture. On
the body-whorl the furrows in front of the keel are more numerous.
Aperture imperfectly preserved.

Two specimens, in fair condition, but the aperture is imperfect. Suter
remarks that this species is closely related to T. compUcatus Suter. The
species, however, is considerably smaller, the tubercles are much less
prominent, and the spiral ornamentation in front of the carina is distinct.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Turris margaritatus n. sp. (Plate XVII, fig. 2.)

Shell small. Length, 15 mm. ; width, 5 mm. Spire consists of six
strongly-keeled whorls. x-Vperture less than half the length of the shell.
The keel has eighteen bead-like tubercles on each whorl, but rather
flattened in front. The whole whorl is finely striated spirally. Body-

Marshall. — Fauna of the Hampden Beds. 231

whorl with ^a moderate anterior canal. The growth-lines, which are quite
distinct, indicate that the anal notch is rather deep, but the specimens have
not the aperture sufficiently well preserved to show it. The portion of
the body-whorl in front of the keel has large as well as fine striations.

The number of tubercles on the keel and the number of fine spiral
striations distinguish this from the other New Zealand species.

Five specimens, in a fair state of preservation.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Turris reticulatus n. sp. (Plate XVII, fig. 8.)

Shell small, 15 mm. by 6 mm., but the greater part of the anterior
canal is wanting. Spire of six whorls, strongly keeled. Each whorl with
■a number of strong spiral lines behind and in front of the keel. On the
penultimate whorl there are ten of these lines above and five below the
keel ; the second from the U})per suture and that on the keel are by far
the strongest. On the keel there are sixteen well-developed tubercles,
which are rather larger radially than longitudinally. Well-marked growth-
lines pass through the tubercles and reach the upper suture. Where they
cross the second spiral line below the suture they give rise to small
tubercles, which are far more prominent on the upper whorls than on the
lower. The intersection of the growth-lines and the spirals give rise to an
appearance that is almost reticulate. The anterior part of the body- whorl
has more marked spiral lines and very numerous growth-lines. Clolumella
smooth, but aperture not fully preserved.

One specimen only, not very well preserved.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Surcula gravida n. sp. (Plate XVI, fig. 4.)

Shell large,, fusiform, 70 mm. by 28 mm. Spire of moderate length and
composed of five whorls. Whorls convex and sharply keeled, but no
tubercles on the keel. Aperture about half the length of the shell, but
lips imperfectly preserved. Anal sinus deep, not sharp, but well rounded.
Ornamentation : A distinct border in front of the suture. A number of
rather prominent spiral lines both above and below the suture. On the
penultimate whorl there are eleven of these in front of the keel and nine
behind it. On the body-whorl the spiral lines in front of the keel are
less prominent, and there are no spiral lines on the beak.

This species approaches, though rather distantly, to *S'. hamiltoni (Hutt.).
The spiral angle, however, is 40°, in place of 25° in >S'. hamiltoni. The
ornamentation is quite different. There are tubercles on the keel of
S. haniilloni and no spiral lines above it, and there are no spiral lines on
the beak.

A single fairly perfect specimen, though a little compressed.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Surcula marginalis n. sp. (Plate XVII, fig. 10.)

An imperfect specimen only. Seven whorls remain on the spire, and
there is a protoconch of three whorls. In the first six whorls there are
eighteen tubercles on the keel, but the last whorl is smooth. Sutures
prominently bordered in front. All portions of the whorl have prominent

232 Transactions.

spiral striations, including the tubercles. As shown by the growth-lines
the anal sinus is moderately sharp, but less so than in *S'. hamilfoni Hutt.

This species is closely related to S. hamilfoni, but differs from it in
having the prominent border of the suture, more numerous tubercles, and
a much more abundant spiral ornamentation both above and below the
keel.

A single imperfect specimen.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Surcula equispiralis n. sp. (Plate XVI, fig. 3.)

Specimen imperfect, not showing the aperture. Length, 20 mm. ;
width, 7 mm. The remaining part of the spire consists of six whorls, which
are slowly tapering, and each one is clearly convex. Each whorl with
about twelve nodular elevations on the carina. These are slightly extended
transversely, but do not reach either suture. They are inclined forward
anteriorly. There are many fine spiral lines developed equally on all parts
of the whorl. Suture bordered in front by a raised ridge, which is marked
spirally like the rest of the whorl.

Mr. Suter remarks that this species is nearest to *S'. pareoraevsis Suter.
The nodules, however, are much more prominent, the suture more dis-
tinctly bordered, and the spiral ornamentation more prominent than in
that species.

A single specimen, imperfect, but showing the sculpture very distinctly.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Surcula torticostata n. sp. (Plate XVII, fig. 7.)

Shell small, and the specimens quite imperfect; 13mm. by 4mm.
Spire long and slender ; six convex whorls showing in the best specimen.
Suture impressed with a well-marked border anteriorly. Whorls with
eighteen radial ridges, which extend from suture to suture and are strongl}'
twisted forward at the anterior end. A series of very fine spiral striae
cover all parts of the whorls. Aperture not preserved in any of the
specimens, but the fairly distinct growth-lines show that the anal notch
was broad and rounded.

Four specimens, which show the ornamentation clearly, but the anterior
part of the shell is not preserved.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Terebra sulcata n. sp. (Phxte XVI, fig. 2.)

Shell of moderate size, 30 mm. by 8 mm. Spire gently tapering, and
consisting of six very slightly convex whorls. Sculpture consisting of large
sharp transverse ribs, which are slightly bent backwards in the middle.
There arc twenty of these ribs on the body-whorl, and they are nearly as
])rominent on the body-whorl as on the higher whorls.

The only specimen is incomplete, though the sculpture is distinct.
Mr. Suter says that the species approaches more closely to T. biplex than to
any other .species.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Marshall. — F<unia of tht Hampden Beds. 233

Sarepta^solenelloides u. sp. (Plate XV, figs. 4, 5, 6.)

"^iiell of moderate size, 30 inni. higli, 15 mm. long, and 10 mm. thick.
Shape oval and slightly inequilateral, the anterior end being a little longer
and more acute. Dorsal margin sloping slightly downward on both sides
of the umbo, which is situated a little behind the middle of the hinge-line
and points slightly posteriorly. Ventral margin gently curved, and passes
gradually to the posterior margin, which is rounded. Hinge-line not quite
straight, with about seventeen teeth on each side of the umbo, below which
there is a large alivincular pit. Pallial line simple. Lunule large but
narrow. A broad but very shallow groove extends from the umbo to the
anterior margin. The sculptiire consists of a series of fine concentric
grooves with relatively flat and wide ridges between them.

In my previous paper {Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, p. 464, 1917) this
shell is classified as a species of Mallet ia, a genus which it closely resembles
in external form. However, it has the hinge of Yoldia, the pallial line of
NucuJa, and the external form of Malletia — peculiarities that Fischer cites
as characteristic of Surepta. Several specimens were obtained, some in
good condition.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

It may be that this is the species recorded by Hutton from these beds
under the name Malletia funiculata, but his specimens seem to have
disappeared, and the name is a nomen nudum.

Sarepta tenuis n. sp. (Plate XV, fig. 9.)

Shell very small, but thick for its size. Height, 3 mm. ; length, 4 mm.
Shape broadly oval. Inequilateral, with a slight anterior extension. Hinge-
line a little curved, with seven inclined teeth in front of the umbo and three
behind it. Shell somewhat tumid. Umbo prominent. Concentrically
striated with shallow grooves leaving low rounded ridges between them.

A single specimen, in good condition. Differs from >S'. obolella in its
shape, its small size, and its concentric ornamentation.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Limopsis hampdenensis n. sp. (Plate XV, figs. 12, 13.)

Shell small, sub-rhomboidal, inequilateral, somewhat inflated ; sculp-
tured with small rounded concentric riblets about the same width as the
interspaces and sensibly granular. On the posterior end from a line with the
umbo are numerous well-marked radiating riblets giving the area a distinctly
cancellated surface. The disc shows several well-marked periods of rest.
Umbones nearer to the anterior end and prominent, slightly project-
ing beyond the almost straight dorsal margin. Anterior end short,
slightly convex, the curve almost uniform with that of the basal margin.
Posteriorly the dorsal margin almost twice the length of the anterior portion,
the end truncated, sharply descending, a little oblique, nearl}^ straight, and
forming a curve on uniting with the broad upw^ard-sweeping basal margin.
Hinge slightly curved ; a narrow triangular pit beneath the apex, and a
few small denticles below the teeth, gradually getting larger as they proceed
outwards, anteriorly four or five, posteriorly six or seven, and more oblique.
Anterior muscle-scar small and inimediately below the hinge-margin, the
posterior lower and much larger. The interior shows faint radiations, the
margin worn but in places slightly crenulate. Height, 3-5 mm. ; length,
4 mm. ; diameter of a single valve approximately 1-25 mm.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

234 Transactions.

The description is derived from two right valves, and the measurements
from the larger of the two. It is a minute form compared with others
recorded from the New Zealand Tertiaries.

Mr. Murdoch was good enough to write this description.

Trigonia areolata n. sp. (Plate XV, fig. 1 ; Plate XVII, fig. 1.)

Shell small, ovate, inequilateral, slightly extended posteriorly. One
valve 14 mm. high and 15 mm. long ; another 17 mm. high and 18 mm.
long. Interior of the shell highly nacreous. Beaks rather prominent,
distinctly prosogyrous. Dorsal margin descending rapidly in front, and
posterior margin evenly rounded ; posterior ventral margin nearly circular ;
anterior margin at first well rounded, then ascending gradually to the
umbo. Sculpture a series of broad rounded ribs except over the area.
There are fifteen of these ribs, which are distinctly broader than the
grooves which separate them. Grooves crossed occasionally by irregular
fine lines of growth. Ventral margin slightly crenated. Near the ventral
margin on the interior surface the grooves have a few irregular stria-
tions in the direction of their length. The posterior '' area " constitutes
about one-fourth of the surface of the valve. Close to its border it has
one rib-like elevation extending from the posterior margin one-third of
the distance to the umbo. Another much broader rib near the posterior
margin of the area, also extending about two-thirds of the distance to the
umbo. A series of fine transverse ridges cross the area. The right valve
shows one large cardinal tooth, which, however, shows no trace of striation
The posterior part of the hinge has not been preserved.

Two right valves only, both with somewhat incomplete hinge. The
nacreous internal surface and the posterior area appear to make it neces-
sary to refer this shell to the genus Trigonia. The smooth tooth, however,
as well as the prosogyrous character, are most anomalous. Suter suggests
that there may be a subgenus of Trigonia possessed of this peculiarity,
but there is no mention of this in the available literature. Cossmann in
his work Sur V evolution des Trigonies does not mention a single species
which has these two characters.

Trigonia densicostata n. sp. (Plate XVI, fig. 1.)

Shell rather large, 50 mm. high and 65 mm. long. Interior surface
highly nacreous. Umbo indistinct but apparently pointed forward. Dorsal
margin nearly straight, but soon descending and sweeping with a rounded
curve to the ventral margin, which is not complete but appears to bend
round evenly to the posterior margin, which is also incomplete. Sculpture :
A large number of fine, rather sharp radiating ridges which are rather
narrower than the intervening grooves. The ribs are nearly equal, and
they can be distinctly seen on the interior svirface of the shell. Hinge-line
incomplete, but with one prominent pointed tooth somewhat resembling
that in T. areolata Marshall, described above.

The generic position of this shell is very doubtful. In my former list
it was referred to Cardium (Papyridina) , but Suter afterwards referred it
with the greatest hesitation to Pseudomonotis. It is described here merely
in order that it may be possible to refer to it by name, but it will shortly be
forwarded to Mr. H. Woods for identification. In the meantime it may be
said that the species does not belong to any other genus of Tertiary or
Recent mollusca hitherto found in New Zealand.

One specimen only, somewhat imperfect.

Type in the Wanganui Museum.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate XV.

7

y ^

4- *-»;

; afi^^Sy^^SsK

-^^

r«^*^^|S^.

^_-'? ,^,

4?".^

^'rJl

^ ,,

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Figs.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

1. — Trigonia areolata n. sp.
2. — Cerithiella tricincta n. sp
3. — Belophos incertus. X 2^.
4, 5, 6. — Sarepta solenelloicles.
7. — Erato antiqua. X 2 J.
8. — Margindla aveniformis. X
9. — Sarejda tenuis n. sp. X 2J

X 2|.

2i.

X

•^1

21.

I'lO. lU. — T urbonilki antiqua n. sj).
Fig. 11. — Ceritliidea minuta n. sji. X 2J.
Figs. 12, \?>. — Limopsis hatnpdenensis. X 2A.
Fig. 14. — Submnrgaritu tricincta n. sp X 22-.
Fig. 15. — Circulus inornatus n. sp. x 2i.
Fig. 16. — Dicroloma zelandica n. sp. x 2.

li'aee y. 23 J.]

Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. LI.

Plate XVI.

'2^'^

Fig. 1. — Trujonia densicostata n. sp. X H.
Fig. 2. — Terebra sulcata n. sp. X 1^^.
Fig. 3. — Surcula equispiralis n. sp. X Ij.

Fig. 4. — Surcula. gravida n. sp. X I5.
Fig. 5. — Fusinus altus n. sp. X Ig.
Fig. (i. — Latirus dubius n. sp. X 1|.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate XVII.

¥'■

^m

^

>»-^A

1

Fig. 1. — Trigonia areokUa n. sp. x 2^.

Fig. 2. — Turris margaritatus n. sp. x 2^.

Fig. 3. — Turritella rudis n. sp. x 2i.

Figs. 4, 5. — Volutodernia zelandica n. sp. X 2,i.

Fig. 6. — Epitoniuia tenuisjnralls n. sp. x 2^.

Fig. 7. — Surcula torticostata n. sp. X 2\
Fig. 8. — Tunis reticulatus n. sp. X 2J
Fig. 9. — Turris jjolilus ii. sp. X 2 A.

Fig. 10. — Surcula marginalia n. sp. X 2^.

Makshall. — Fauna of (lit Uainpih n Beds.

235

List of Hampden Mollusca.

The following list contains all the species of Mollusca that have been
collected bv me at Hampden — i.e., the species that have been described
above and a few species that were found during 1918.*

Turris duplex Suter
Tunis nexilis hicarinatus Suter
Turris complicatus Suter
Turris politus n. sp.

Aturia sp.
Architectonica n. sp.
Clio aff. urenuiensis Suter
Circulus inornatus n. sp.
Cerithidea minuta n. sp.
Cerithiella tricincta n. sp.
Turritella symmetrica Hutton
Tnrritella ornata Hutton
Turritella rudis n. sp.
Struthiolaria citicta Hutton
kitnithiolaria minor Marshall
Sinum (Eunaticina) elegans Suter
Submargarita tricincta n. sp.
Ampullina waihaoensis Suter
Amjndlina suturalis Hutton
Natica zelandica Q. &, G.
Erato antiqua n. sp.
Oymatium minimum Hutton
Galeodea senex Hutton
Epitonium rugulosum lyratum (Zittel)
Epitonium tenuispiralis n. sp.
TurhoniUa antiqua. n. sp.
Dicroloma zelandica n. sp'
Fusinus solidus Suter
Fusinus alius n. sp.
Exilia waihaoensis Suter
Latirus dubius n. sp.
Siphonalia nodosa Martyn
tSiphonalia turrita Suter
Belophos incertus n. sp.
AJectrion sp.

Volutoderma zelandica n. sp.
Cymbiola (Miomelon) corrugata Hut-
ton
Ancilla novae-zelandiae Sowerby
Marginella avenoides n. sp.

Turris regius Suter
Turris margaritatxis n. sp.
Turris reticdatus u. sp.
Surcula hamiltoni Hutton
Surcula gravida, n. sp.
Surcula marginalis n. sp.
Surcula equispiralis n. sp.
Surcula torticostata n. sp.
Surcida serotina Suter
Surcula sp.

Bathytoma sulcata Hutton
Terebra costata Hutton
Terebra sulcata n. sp.
Gilbertia tertiaria Marshall
Bidlinella enysi Hutton
Dentalium mantelli Zittel
Dentalium pareoraense Suter
Cucullaea alta. Sowerby
Sarepta solenelloides n. sp.
Sarepta. obolella (Tate)
Sarepta tenuis n. sp.
Area novae-zelandiae E. A. Smith
Limopsis hampdenensis n. sp.
Limopsis zitteli Ihering
Trigonia areolata n. sp.
Trigonia densicostcda n. sp.
Lima angulata Sowerby
Atrina sp.

Ostrea wuellerstorfi Zittel
Cardium sp.
Pecten Jmttoni Park

* Further collecting at Hampden resulted in obtaining a good specimen of Dicro-
loma zelandica which shows the aperture perfectly, though the distal portions of the
wings are wanting. The following additional species were collected : —

Euihriofusus spinosus. Fusinus n. sp.

SeiJa cfr. bulbosa. SipJionalia n. sp.

Epitonium cfr. gracillimum. Trachus ? sp.

Surcula, 2 n. sp. Bursonia sp.

None of these specimens seems to have a Recent occurrence, and if that is the case
the percentage of Recent species in the formation sinks to y"l. The number of species
in the Hampden fauna is unusually large compared with the number of specimens that
can be found. The Recent species are in nearly all cases represented by a single specimen.
Area novae-zelandiae, Turritella. symmetrica, Sarepta obolella, Natica zelandica, and Lima
angulata are identified from bad single specimens only. (May, 1919.)

236 Transactions.

The Age of the Hampden Beds.

The main features of the Hampden beds were described in a former
paper, in which a brief reference w^as made to their geological position*
and to the opinions that had been expressed in regard to them by various
geologists. Further collecting has been done and a more complete examina-
tion of the specimens has been made since then, with the result that eight
additional species can now be recorded from these beds. Of these eight
species only one is Eecent ; thus the percentage of Recent species is only
slightly affected, and remains at 10-3.

The specimen which was previously classed as Malletia sp. is now foimd
on examination of some perfect examples to be a new species of Sarepta.
It is much larger and has a much thicker shell than any other species of
Sarepta that has been previously recognized in this country.

One of the additional species is Sfriithiolaria minor Marshall, which has
previously been recorded from Wangaloa only. Further examination of
Trigonia sp. shows that although it has an area with a sculpture quite
different from that on the rest of the shell, and is thus in no way related
to the Recent or Tertiary species of Trigonia, it yet apparently has teeth
that are destitute of the striations which are so characteristic of this genus.
Mr. Suter advised that it should be sent to England for further comparison
and examination.

The specimen previously classed as Papijridea sp. is now found to be
certainly not a species of that genus, and in fact it is quite clear that it
does not belong to any genus that has hitherto been recognized among the
Recent or Tertiary species of Mollusca of New Zealand. Mr. Suter con-
sidered that it was a Pteriid, and suggested that it might belong to Pseudo-
monotis. The shell has a marked nacreous lustre, while its dentition suggests
a relationship to the species classed as Trigonia areolata Marshall, and its
ornamentation has no marked resemblance to any New Zealand genus.
It is here provisionally classed with the genus Trigonia. Mr. Suter remarked
that it was not possible to do justice to this species in New Zealand, where
comparatively little literature was available and few specimens from other
parts of the world were available for comparison.

An additional specimen of Dicrolonia was obtained, but unfortunately
it also is incomplete ; but in the matrix in which it is embedded there are
definite impressions of the wings, and the species is now placed in the genus
Dicroloma wdth some confidence. It is most unfortunate that so many of
the species that are found in this locality should be in such a poor state
of preservation.

The list of species that have been found at Hampden given above shows
that altogether some sixty-eight species have been obtained. Of these as
many as twenty-nine — a percentage of 42-7 — are regarded as new. This
very large proportion in itself suggests that the beds belong to an horizon
from which little collecting has been done in New Zealand. Since nearly
one thousand species of Mollusca have now been recorded from the Tertiary
rocks of this country, it is clear that the Hampden beds cannot be one of
the ordinary Tertiary horizons, from nearly all of which fairly large collec-
tions have now been made.

Of other Hampden species that have also been found in other localities
the following are noteworthy. Gilhertia tertiaria Marshall is thought by

*P. Marshall. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, p. 463, 1917.

Marshall. — Fauna of tht Hampden Beds. 237

Cossmann to be possibly identical with G. paucisulcata Marshall from
Wanaaloa. In addition the followina,' sjx'cies occur in both of these beds :
Cucullaea alia Sow., TurriteUa symmetrica Hutton, Bullitiella e)i//si Hutton,
Dentalium mantelli Zitt., Struthiolaria minor Marshall.

I have previously stated that in my opinion the Wangaloa beds are
the oldest Tertiary horizon that has yet been recognized in this country,
and that the occurrence of Perissolax and PugneUus shows that there were
some Cretaceous MoUusca still in existence. In addition Gilbertia and
Heteroterma suggest an extremely early Eocene or perhaps a Paleocene
age as an equivalent. The further fact that the percentage of the Recent
species sinks as low as 8 again supports the view as to the antiquity of
these beds. This opinion as to their great antiquity is supported by
Trechmann* and by Thomson. f The percentage of Recent species in the
Hampden beds is about the same as in the collection from Wangaloa, but
the Recent species are not the same in the two localities.

In addition the antiquity of the Hampden beds is shown by the presence
of the genera Gilbertia, Volutoderma, Trigonia, and Dicroloma. These
genera, however, with the exception of Gilbertia, are not the same as those
of high antiquity in the Wangaloa collection. This difference in details
may, however, be due to the different lithological nature of the strata, and
therefore, in all probability, of the station at w^hich deposition of the strata
took place. The Wangaloa beds are quartz sands with a small amount
of glauconite. The Hampden beds, on the other hand, are formed of an
extremely unctuous mud, in which, however, there is a large amount of
glauconite.

I believe that in the present state of our knowledge of the range of
genera and species in the older Tertiary rocks both in space and in time
it is unreasonable to insist on the occurrence of considerable numbers of
identical genera and species of fossils for the correlation of horizons, for
we cannot at present make proper allowance for the differences that are
due to station. On the other hand, the outcrops of these older Tertiary
rocks are so isolated from one another that in view of the generally
accepted belief in the great overlap in their stratigraphical relations it is
very undesirable — if, indeed, possible — to classify all the Tertiary rocks
on a basis of purely stratigraphical considerations, as has lately been
attempted by Thomson.

For these reasons it is in the opinion of the author far better to base
the classification of these rocks on the general affinities of the fossil fauna
contained in them. This may be most conveniently effected by comparing
the faunas in such a way as to show the percentage of species that are
common to the various strata, and in particular by paying special attention
to the percentage of Recent species that occur in the various collections
that have been made. The Recent fauna is particularly suitable for this
comparison, since it contains species that have littoral occurrence as well
as those which occur in water of moderate depth. This comparison may,
however, tend to suggest rather too great an age for those strata which
were deposited in deep water, because the molluscan fauna of our deep-
water areas is still most imperfectly known.

Thomson, indeed, now suggests that the geographical separation of
the outcrops of our Tertiary formations is due to minor diastrophic

* C. T. Trechmann, Geol. Mag., dec. 6, vol. 4, p. 296, 191'
t J. A. Thomson, Tra7is. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49. p. 402, 1917.

238 Transactions.

movements instead of overlap. Of this there is at present no proof what-
ever. Certainly the continuity of the Tertiary strata between the Waihao
and Shag Point gives no suggestion of such a series of movements as
would be required to account for the different age of the lowest strata
of the series of younger rocks (Oamaru system) in different parts of that
district.

A further comparison of the Hampden fauna with that of other horizons
in the Oamaru district is also of interest. This comparison should begin
with those strata that are oldest. In my opinion the oldest from which
collection has been made (with the exception of the Hampden and of
the Shag Point beds) is the Bortonian of Park. That is also the opinion
of Park, who says, "' The Bortonian is the lowest marine fauna of the
Oamaruian in North Otago, if not in New Zealand."* The list of Mollusca,
however, which he gives is relatively small, for it contains onlv forty-three
species. In another respect also it is rather strikingly different from all
the other collections that have been made in North Otago, as it contains
twenty species — nearly half of the total — of lamellibranchs. This may
be due to a shaUower-water station or to the imperfect preservation of the
smaller species of gasteropods.

The beds from which this collection was made are composed of a quartz
sandstone which must have been deposited under conditions quite different
from those under which the Hampden beds were deposited. Under these
circumstances it would not be expected that the faunas from these two
localities would show very great resemblance even if they were of the same
age. In actual fact but little resemblance can be discovered. It is, how-
ever, noticeable that Sinwn elegans Suter and Surcula serotina Suter occur
in both formations, and that these species have been found in the lower
formations of the Oamaru district only.

The horizon that appears to me to be next in the order of age in the
Oamaru district is that of the greensand of Waihao. Collections from this
horizon were listed in 1914, t but the collections were very small. Out of
thirty-three species some 12 per cent, were found to be Recent. Six of
these species, however, have been found in the Hampden and Waihao beds
only up to the present time. These are — Ampullina waihaoensis Suter,
Exilia waihaoensis Suter, Turris duplex Suter, Turris regius Suter, Turris
complicatus Suter, and Surctda serotioia Suter. The last of these has been
found in the Bortonian also.

The occurrence of these species in the two beds is of special importance
when it is realized that all of them are absent from the Awamoa and Target
Gully localities, in which large collections have been made, numbering 87
and 212 species respectively. These two localities topograjihically lie
directly between the Hampden and Waihao greensand deposits. The
Waihao greensands lie stratigraphically between the quartz sands with
coal — probably the Bortonian beds of Park — and the Oamaru or Ototara
limestone horizon. Another stratum which occupies the same local strati-
graphical position and has the same lithological nature is the Wharekuri
bed ; but this lies farther to the west, and on the assumption of the correct-
ness of the theory of continuous overlap the Wharekuri beds, which lie
farther to the west, would be of greater age than the Waihao greensands,
which are situated twenty miles farther to the east and in a region, therefore,

* J. Park, X.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 20, p. 34, 1918.
t P. Marshall, Trana. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 385, 1915.

Marshall. — Fmina of ihc Hainixhn Beds. 239

submerged at an earlier date as the sea margin gradually advanced west-
wards. Actually the Wharekuri beds contain 18-7 per cent, of the species
that are found in the Hampden beds, and this is a larger percentage than is
found in any other of the beds in the Oamaru district.

Classification of the Oamaru System.

These comparisons between the Hampden fauna and that of other
localities within the Oamaru area is of special interest in view of criticisms
that have lately been made by Thomson,* and of classifications that have
been proposed by Park.f and of statements which have been made by
Morgan. {

In various publications I have insisted that the series of rocks that rest
on the Hokonui formation, or on rocks that are older than these, belong
to one period of continuous deposition. The u|)per limit of this formation
has been placed by me as certainly not below the base of the Wanganui
rocks, and perhaps as high as the upper limit of this formation. This
whole system of rocks I have called the Oamaru system.

This suggestion to classify all the younger rocks in a single system has
been constantly opposed by Park, who has written, " To the young geologist
there is always something attractive and alluring about a Cretaceo-Eocene
succession." Since 1904 he has been pointing to one horizon after another
as obviously the plane of division between the Cretaceous and the Tertiary,
but in each case he has been forced to withdraw from his position. His
latest statement, after being forced to retreat from his position of 1912,
is : "A settlement can only be reached by a detailed geological survey
of the middle Waipara and Weka Pass districts. "§ This is the result after
fifteen years of effort to find a plane of disjunction in a small area where
continuous sections are remarkably clear in stream-valleys running generally
at right angles to the strike.

Morgan, in discussing this proposal to classify all these younger rocks
in one system, writes : '' This proposal has not been fruitful in any respect
save in the promotion of discussion and in the temporary thickening of the
cloud of confusion involving an admittedly difficult problem." It is only
necessary to add that it has stimulated research in such a way that it is
now definitely known that the planes that were previously thought to be
breaks between different geological formations are merely stratigraphical
planes in a series of continuous deposition.

Thomson, on the other hand, agrees with the proposal to regard all the
sediments above the Hokonui system up to and including the Wanganui
system as a single formation " which were called by Marshall and his col-
leagues the younger rock-series of New Zealand, and named by Marshall
the Oamaru system. Previous classifications had not brought out the
close diastrophic relationship of this group of rocks, and in this respect
the paper in question marked a great advance."

Thomson objects to the use of the name " Oamaru " for this rock-
system. He lays stress on the fact that the name had been previously used
for a rock-system in New Zealand, and he says also that the strata are not

* J. A. Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 28-40, 191(5 ; also vol. 49, pp. 397-413,
1917.

t J. Park, N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 20, 1918.

% P. G. Morgan, 10th Ann. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv.. Pari. Paper C.-2b, p. 28, 1916.

§ J. Pab,k, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, p. 393, 1917.

240 Transactions.

fully developed in the Oamaru district. My reasons for wishing to retain
the name " Oamaru " for this system are as follows : —

(1.) Historical : (a) The locality is the one from which the first collec-
tion of fossils in New Zealand was made ; and (b) Button's Oamaru system
included nearly all the strata in the district, and his Oamaru system
includes the majority of the rocks classed in the Oamaru system by me.
The retention of the name will serve to keep alive the memory of the man
who did so much spade-work in the palaeontology and stratigraphy of
New Zealand.

(2.) Palaeontological : The fossils in the Oamaru area have been far
more fully collected, studied, and classified than in any other region where
the system of rocks is well developed.

(3.) In the Oamaru district there is a fuller development of the various
strata of a fossil-bearing nature than elsewhere. Between Shag Point,
Wharekuri, and the Waihao River the strata are continuous, and so far
as known they are not disturbed by any minor diastrophic movements.
A nearly complete series of fossiliferous strata is nov/ known : —

Awamoa . . . . . . 36-8 per cent. Recent species.

Target Oully 34

Otiake . . . . . . 24

Wharekuri . . . . . . 23

Waihao Valley greensands . . 10-15 ,, ,,

Bortonian . . . . . . 18 ,, „

Hampden (early Tertiary) . . 10-3 ,, „
Shag Point (Senonian).

At Mount Harris there are beds which are stratigraphically still higher,
but satisfactory collections have not yet been made from them. In no
other district where the strata have such a full develojiment have so many
fossils been collected from such a variety of horizons. Confusion with
Hutton's Oamaru system is easily avoided, for it has already fallen into
disuse.

Thomson* has lately proposed to call my Oamaru system the Notocene
system. This appears to me to be a very unfortunate suggestion. The
suffix " cene " has a definite and satisfactory meaning when used in the
ordinary names of the divisions of the Tertiary era. This meaning of
■' recent " ceases to have any point when used in the word Notocene. The
word " noto " should mean either that this is the farthest southern point
where such rocks have been found or that the formation is common to
southern latitudes. Neither of these is the case, for younger rocks and
tlieir contents have been fully described from Seymour Island. There are
also well-known and wide occurrences of young rocks in South America
and in Australia, and these cannot be included under the same name as the
New Zealand formations. The name Notocene would thus be scientifically
misleading, and it is at once pretentious and inexact. If it is desired to
use a name that has no special locality origin, and if hybridism is not an
offence, I would suggest " Maoricene " ; or if a name with a special and
exact meaning is required " Notonesinene " might be used, as this might
well be taken to mean " The young rocks of southern islands."

However, as I have already said, the retention of the name " Oamaru "
is desirable for the reasons — -(1) it is historical ; (2) it helps to emphasize

* J. A. Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, p. 398-413, 1917.

Marshall. — Fauna of the lianipcUii Beds. 241

the memory of the pioneer in the Tertiary palaeontology of New Zealand ;

(3) Oamaru is the district where nearly the whole system is developed ;

(4) the rocks are there* more richly fossiliferous in the various horizons
than elsewhere, and fuller collections have been made from them.

My classification of the divisions of the Oamaru system has also been
criticized because it is based on the percentage of Recent sj^ecies contained
in the faunas of the different ]:)eds. It appears to me that any classification
of the divisions of the strata must be based on at least one of the follow-
ing considerations: (J) Tlie occurrence of easily recognizable and widely
extended lithological horizons, or on a similar succession of strata in
different localities ; (2) the occurrence of genera or species of fossils that
have a relatively short range in time and are also widely distributed
areally ; (3) the general features and relationship of the faunas in the
different strata.

The first of these considerations appears to me to be incapable of general
application to the Oamaru system. The rocks of the system have jjrobably
a great overlap, and consequently deposits that are strikingly different
from one another lithologically may be strictly contemporaneous.

In Thomson's opinion the areas of deposition have been affected by
local diastrophic movements.* I can reasonably hold that no proof has
been given of these supposed local distrophic movements in New Zealand,
and I can ([uote the Oamaru district, at least, as one in which the Tertiary
strata are continuous over a large district without any indication of being
affected by local diastrophic action.

Thomson's divisions of his Notocene appear to be based entirely on the
lithological characters of certain beds near Oamaru itself. The descrip-
tions that he gives of them are as follows : —

Awamoan (uppermost stage) — Blue clay of All Day Bay.
Hutchinsonian — Hutchinson Quarry beds and concretionary band.
Ototaran — Limestone.
Waiarekan — Waiareka tuffs and Enfield-Windsor greensands = Nga-

2)ara greensands.
Ngaparan — Coal-measures, sands, conglomerates, and coal-seams. f

These purely stratigraphical divisions are poorly enough defined from a
lithological standpoint, and no mention whatever is made of any palaeonto-
logical characters that they may have. It appears almost impossible to
correlate any other beds with them. Endless confusion would be caused,
too, by attempts to place the various beds at Oamaru in them. Actually,
so far as lithological characters are concerned, this classificatioji is almost
the same as that proposed by myself and colleagues in 1911, but this litho-
logical classification was then stated to be proposed merely because the
palaeontological researches up to that time did not, in our opinion, provide
satisfactory material for the classification of the strata, and for that reason
we refrained from giving stage names for the strata. Now, however, there
is, in my opinion, suflficient material to allow me to frame a classification
that is based on palaeontological research.

In making use of our present knowledge of palaeontology the first point
that requires notice is that the fossil Mollusca that have been found in each
of these divisions of a lithological nature extend in large numbers — 25 to

* J. A. Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 400-1, 1917.
t J. A. Thomson, Trans. X.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 34, 35, 1916.

242 Transactions.

50 ])er cent. — into the divisions above and below. It is therefore necessary
to exercise the greatest care in selecting those species which are to be
regarded as the distinctive species of any one horizon. Even yet our
knowledge is probably not quite sufficient to allow us to do so in all
cases with great confidence. But even where this is so it does not justify
us in neglecting the large amount of palaeontological knowledge we now
have, as is actually done by Thomson.

As stated before, endless confusion would be caused by attempts to place
the various beds near Oamaru in the stages as defined by Thomson. What,
for instance, is the position of the Wharekuri beds ? There is no Ototara
limestone near them, and there is no Waiareka tuff, and there are no beds
that in any way resemble the blue clays of the Awamoa stage. In our
old classification of 1911 they had already a definite place, though it was
regarded as provisional only. Park without any hesitation classes them
in the Hutchinsonian because, he says, they lie below his Waitaki stone
and above his lignitic beds.* This is at best a guess, and Thomson, with
all oth^r geologists except Park, refuses to recognize any difference between
the Ototara and Waitaki limestones. Palaeontological results, however,
can here be utilized with advantage, for seventy-five species of Mollusca
have been found in the Wharekuri beds. If the general relationship of this
fauna and the percentage of Recent species can be taken as a guide it can
be clearly shown that the horizon is lower than that of the Ototara lime-
stone and higher than the Bortonian of Park.

The reason for all of this is that Thomson maintains that the fauna of
each localitv is still imperfectly known, and he will not accept any fauna
as characteristic until repeated visits to a locality fail to result in the col-
lection of additional species. He states that he has examined ten thousand
specimens of brachiopods from all parts of New Zealand, and says that
until a similar investigation has been made of the Mollusca no rock grouping
can rightlv be based upon them. Actually I have examined far more than
ten thousand specimens of Mollusca at Target Gully alone, and many times
this number of specimens in other parts of New Zealand. More than eiglit
hundred species of Tertiary Mollusca that occur in New Zealand have now
been described, and the number of species recorded from several localities
is now more than sixty. vSurely our knowledge is now sufficient to allow
us to adopt a palaeontological basis for our grouping of the rocks of the
Oamaru system.

The basis of classification that has been found satisfactory in all parts
of the world is dependent upon the occurrence of genera or species which
have a restricted range in time. Unless a clear secpience of fossiliferous
strata is found in any locality, or unless some rough grouping of the rocks
is first obtained, the range of species is in general rather hard to determine.
There will, however, always be some species that have a restricted range
in anv one fossiliferous locality, and by comparing those species that have
a short life in different localities a classification can soon be arranged.

Attenipts which have been made to do this in New Zealand have not u})
to the present time proved very successful. The more accurate identifica-
tion of fossils and the more extensive collecting of recent years have,
however, now made it possible. Some of our genera in particular are
specially suited for this. Struthiolaria appears to me to be one of the best.

* J. Park, Bull. N.Z. Geol. Surv. No. 20, p. 84, 1918.

Marshall. — Fauna of thr Hampdav Beds. 213

The species are numerous, and their ornamentation distinct and varied, and
many of the species appear to have a short range.

There can now be no doubt that the genus SfrutJiiolarin is derived from
Pitgnellus Conrad, or from that modification that has been calk'd CoiicJw-
ihijra by McCoy. Conchofhyra parasitica McCoy occurs at the Selwyn
Rapids and other places in rocks of Senonian age, and at the Waipara in
rocks probably of the same age it is represented by Pugnellvs waiparaensis
Trechmann, a closely related species, while at Wangaloa, in rocks that are
of very early Tertiary age, Pugnellus australis Marshall occurs, a species
quite closely related to P. waiparaensis. At Hampden and Wangaloa there
is Struthiolaria minor Marshall, a species that has a callosity extending "ver
the greater part of the spire. Pugnellus australis Marshall is thought by
Cossmann to be quite probably a Struthiolaria. S. calcar, S. spinosa, and
S. tiiberculata have a restricted range in the middle part of the Oamaru
system, while S. canaliculata occurs in the portion that is commonly com-
pared with the Upper Miocene, and S. frazeri is found in beds that are
possibly the equivalent of the Lower Pliocene, and two species extend up
to the Recent period.

Fusinus is another genus that can probably be used in the same way,
for F. solidus is found in the Hampden beds, and in other rather higher
but still old Tertiary beds. At Wharekuri F. pulcher occurs. F. carinatus
occurs in beds that are rather low in the system in Canterbury, whih'
F. climacotus is found at Enfield and Target Gully. In the north
F. morgani and F. kaiparaensis are also species that appear to liave a
restricted range. F. spiralis occurs in Wanganui and Recent beds.

Exilia is a genus that is said by Cossmann to be characteristic of the
Eocene period. In New Zealand E. waihaoensis is found in the Hampden
beds and at Waihao, E. dalli extends to the top of the Oamaru limestone,
and a third species is found in beds of a low horizon at Enfield.

Surcula is a genus that is well represented, and many of the s]3ecies
have a restricted range. Thus Surcula hamiltoni is found at Hampden,
Wharekuri, and Kakahu. Surcula serotina is confined to the beds of low
horizon at Hampden and Waihao and at Borton's. Many of the other
species have a sufficiently restricted range to allow them to be used as index
fossils.

There are many other genera, such as Pecten, Cardium, V enericardia,
Natica, Crassatellites, and Sipho7ialia, that have species which by reason
of their common occurrence, distinctness, and short range in time are
eminently suitable for indicating the age of certain horizons.

The relation of various faunas to the Recent fauna and to one another
gives another basis for correlation that may be used with the greatest
advantage in studying the divisions of the Oamaru system. Thomson
compares it with Lyell's original basis for the classification of the European
Tertiaries, and says that the great geologist adopted this method because
the European fossiliferous Tertiary beds were discontinuous. Surely that is
also so in New Zealand, for otherwise we should not still at the present day
be worrying about the stratification succession in them after forty years of
efiort. The fact that Lyell included the Brachiopoda in his comparisons
does not afiect the question. In New Zealand the brachiopods occur so
sporadically and in such a small number of species compared with the
Mollusca, and the species are so hard to identify with certainty, that they
are far less satisfactory for purposes of correlation. Nobody would slavishly
follow Lyell to the extent of requiring in New Zealand the same percentages
for the different divisions of the Tertiary sediments as those that were

244 Transactions.

used by him. It would be inadvisable to include the Brachiopoda in any
New Zealand comparisons, because it so often happens that no brachiopods
are to be found in the beds that contain molluscan fossils.

A further objection to this method is based on the possibility of the
migration of faunas to New Zealand at different times. Our knowledge
of the fauna is probably sufficient now to enable us to express a definite
opinion on this subject, and it can be stated with some confidence that we
have every reason for thinking that at no time has an introduction of a
considerable number of species to our Tertiary molluscan fauna taken place.
It is certainly a fact that a statement of the number of Recent species in
the different fossil faunas will more speedily discover whether there has
been such a migration than any other method of research.

It is now generally admitted that there is no stratigraphical break
in the series of Tertiary rocks, and also that there is none in the faunal
succession that is represented in them, for, as I have previously cjuoted.
Thomson and Morgan state " Each Tertiary fauna seems to merge gradually
into the succeeding one "* ; and the late Mr. Suter has written the following
in a letter to me : " There is no doubt that our molluscan fauna has
gradually decreased, and also that the Tertiary forms gradually merge
into one another." If this is the case it will certainly be extremely hard,
if not impossible, even when our Tertiary fauna is completely known and
the range of species definitely recorded, to find a horizon at which any
important number of species disappear simultaneously. It is distinctly
better under these circumstances to characterize the beds as containing
certain percentages of Recent species.

This statement of the ])roportion of Recent species will, however, not
provide a secure basis for comparison with European horizons. The small
size of New Zealand and the fact that the more recent researches and the
number of autochthonous species in its fauna and flora all show that the
land has been isolated from other countries since, at the latest, the late
Cretaceous, except possibly in the post-Tertiary, suggest that the organic
changes must have been relatively slow. This belief is further supported
by the knowledge that there has been no great variation of climatic con-
ditions : that is, though the climate has been warmer and colder, it has not
been tropical at any time, nor has there been anything that has approached
the arctic cold of the Great Ice Age of Europe.

Again, it must be emphasized that our strata were deposited under the
most different conditions of depth of water and of proximity to the shore-
line, so that it is almost certain that in different parts of the area con-
glomerates, greensands, and limestones were contemporaneous formations.
Such different lithological horizons would necessarily have also very different
palaeontological facies, and a very great deal of work must be undertaken
before we can be reasonably certain of their contemporaneity if we rely
upon the occurrence or absence of index fossils. On the other hand, the
Recent fauna contains species that live under all these different conditions,
and it therefore affords a basis for comparison with the fauna of every
lithological facies of the Tertiary strata.

It follows that if there is in New Zealand a continuous succession of our
Tertiarv molluscan species and an unbroken series of Cainozoic strata, and
if the contemporaneous strata have a great variety of lithological facies,

* Preface to Palaeontological Bulletin No. 5, 1917.

Marshall. — Fauna of the Hampden Beds. 245

then this country is a typical one in which a calculation of the percentage
of Recent species in representative collections from different strata affords
the most satisfactory means of gauging the relative age.

It is not reasonable to refuse to use the percentage criterion because
the present collections have not exhausted the fauna of any locality. In
most cases sixty or seventy species are sufficiently representative of a fauna,
and it is usually found that the percentage of Recent species in a collection
of forty species in New Zealand strata remains practically the same even
when large additions are subsequently made to it. At Target Gully,
Oamaru, when the collection was 69 species the percentage of Recent species
was 32-8 ; wlien 126 species, 36-3 per cent. ; when 155 species, 33 per cent. ;
and when 212 species, 334 per cent. In calculating these percentages
allowance has been made for erroneous identifications which were made in
the earlier lists when they were first published.

Of course, it must be realized that the personal equation in the identifi-
cation of species may cause a considerable variation in the percentage of
Recent species when the identification is made by difterent authorities.
Probably by the time that this has had much eft'ect we shall be able to
substitute definite species as indicating a special horizon in place of these
percentages. At present it must be noted that in the Target Gully fossils
Cossmann cannot agree that the s])ecies identified by Suter as Chione
mesodesma and C. oblonga are actually the same as these Recent species. It
is noticeable also that the relatively large Natica zelandica which is found
Recent and in the Wanganui beds differs greatly in size from the con-
sistently small form which is found in the Target Gully and Wharekuri
beds and in other beds of that series near Oamarii. Again, the Malletia
axistralis of Wharekuri is notably different from the Recent and Wanganui
specimens, while specimens from Awamoa have characters intermediate in
many respects. Mr. Murdoch, too, assures me that in his opinion the
Crassatellites obesus from Target Gully is quite a different species from that
which is still living.

In summarizing the above I should say that the following facts appear
to me to justify the use of the percentage method in the present state of
our knowledge in classifying the strata of the Oamaru system in New
Zealand : (1) There is a continuous succession of strata belonging to
this system, which extends from perhaps the equivalent of the European
Senonian to the Pliocene ; (2) the faunas of the various Tertiary horizons
gradually merge into one another ; (3) contemporaneous strata differ so
greatly lithologically and have been deposited under such very diff'erent
bathymetric conditions that comparisons of species are in the light of our
present knowledge unsatisfactory ; and (4) the actual range of species is
not yet sufficiently well known to allow of definite index fossils being stated
as distinctive of different horizons.*

The table below, which has been prepared with great care, shows the
faunal lelations between the various beds near Oamaru. It also shows
some comparisons between the Oamaru strata and those of the Trelissick
beds of Canterbury, and also those of the Pakaurangi Point, Kaipara
Harbour, North Auckland. It is difficult to frame a table that will give

* In reference to the use of the percentage of Recent species for defining the age
of the Tertiary periods the most comprehensive of lately published text-books of geology
says, " A wider knowledge of the marine Tertiary molluscs has shown that this classi-
fication has permanent value." (L. V. Pirsson and G. Schuchert, Text-book of Geoloqu,
p. 914.)

24:6 Transactions.

the actual faunal relationships between the different strata in a distinct
manner when the collections which have been made in the different
localities vary much in the number of species. For instance, when a com-
parison is made between the Otiake and the Target Gully faunas one is
comparing a collection of 61 species with one of 212 species. One would
naturally expect that a high percentage of the former would be found in
the latter. On the other hand, only 28 per cent, of the Target Gully
species could occur in the Otiake collection. On the whole, it appears to
be the best plan to take each collection separately and calculate what
percentage of the species that occur in each of the other localities is found
among the species that occur in the stratum which is being considered.
A comparison is also made with the fauna of the Recent beds and of the
fauna that has been recorded from the Wanganui beds. In the latter some
200 species are recorded by Hutton, but the collection that he describes
has been made from a large number of horizons, though all of them are
younger than the strata at Oamaru and younger than those of the
Trelissick Basin. It appears to me 2:)robable that no single horizon at
Wanganui will yield more than 150 species of fossil MoUusca, even when
fuUy collected. Of the Recent MoUusca it seems that no more than 400
of the recorded species could be expected to occur under the conditions
of depth of water in which the Oamaru deposits were laid down. This,
at any rate, is the assumption that is made, and in all of the percentage
calculations it is assumed that the Recent fauna consists of 400 species only.
The various beds from which collections have been made may be
described as follows : —

(1.) Hampden : On the coast about three miles north of the township

of Hampden, or about fifteen miles south of Oamaru. The

beds are unctuous green marls with a good deal of glauconite.

Perhaps some 1,000 ft. above the base of the Oamaru system

in that locality.
(2.) Wharekuri : Typical glauconite sands. Exposed on the left bank

of the Waitaki River six miles from Kurow, about thirty miles

north-west of Oamaru.
(3.) Otiake : Close to the right bank of the Waitaki River, four miles

south-east of Kurow, or twenty-five miles north-west of Oamaru.

The rocks are gritty polyzoan limestones which are higher in

the series than the Wharekuri beds and probably rest directly

on them. It is very generally admitted that this is the horizon

of the Oamaru or Ototara limestone.
(4.) Target Gully : These are about half a mile from the Oamaru

Railway-station, close to the Eden Street bridge. The beds are

greyish sands with a little glauconite. The beds rest some 30 ft.

above the Oamaru or Ototara limestone.
(5.) Awamoa : Near the coast about four miles south of Oamaru. The

beds are a blue mudstone, which is admitted to be a higher

* horizon than the Target Gully beds.

In addition some comparisons are made with the Bortonian beds of

Park* and also with the fauna of two beds in the Trelissick Basin, which

have lately been fully listed by Speight,! and with the Pakaurangi fauna

of North Auckland.

* J, Park, N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 20, p. 34, 1918.

t R. Speight, Trans. X.Z. InM., vol. 49, pp. .346, 348, 1917.

Marshalt>. — Fmina of the Ham'pden Beds.

247

ien,
pecies.

kurl,
pecies.

i

o

03

2

a?

ftcc

Sco

^00

-8*

S'^

s

000

5 lO

!i r-l

Moq

go

go

§«o

J=t~

•43®

S2

W

^

0

^<N

Oj^

Hampden,
(38 species

W^harekuri,
75 species

Otiake,

61 species

Target Gully,
212 si^eeies

Awamoa,

87 species

Trelissick (1), .
87 species

Trelissick (2),
66 species

Pakaurangi,
113 species

Bortonian,
43 species

14

8

16

7

7

18-7

13-3

7-5

3-5

1-7

14

31

41

18

16

20-6

50-2

19-3

9

4

8

31

43

19

15

11-8

41-3

19-7

9-5

3-8

16

41

43

71

71

23-5

54

67

35

18

11

30

25

59

35

34

16

40

41

28

17-5

9

4

13

13

27

27

33

5-9

17-3

21-3

12-7

13-6

8-2

6

10

11

31

17

21

8-8

13-3

18

15-1

8-5

5-2

11

21

18

48

24

23

16-2

28

29-5

22-6

12-0

6

0

12

5

17

11

8

7-3

16

8-2

7-5

5-5

2

Number of species found also

in Hampden fauna.
Percentage of species found

also in Hampden fauna.
Number of species found also

in Wharekuri fauna.
Percentage of species found

also in Wharekuri fauna.
Number of species found also

in Otiake fauna.
Percentage of species found

also in Otiake fauna.
Number of species found also

in Target Gully fauna.
Percentage of species found

also in Target Gully faima.
Number of si^ecies found also

in Awamoa fauna.
Percentage of species found

also in Awamoa fauna.
Number of species found also

in Trelissick (1) fauna.
Percentage of species found

also in Trelissick (1) fauna.
Number of species fomid also

in Trelissick (2) fauna.
Percentage of species fomid

also in Trelissick (2) fauna.
Number of species found also

in Pakaurangi fauna.
Percentage of species found

also in Pakaurangi fauna.
Number of species found also

in Bortonian fauna.
Percentage of species found

also in Bortonian fauna.

Number

of

jamellibranchp

14

Total

Number of

Species.

68

Percentage

of

Lamellibranchs

20

30

75

40

19

61

31

60

212

28

.. 24

87

28

57

87

66

40

66

60

39

113

34

. . 18

43

42

Hampden . .
Wharekuri . .
Otiake
Target Gully
Awamoa
Trelissick (1)
Trelissick (2)
Pakaurangi . .
Bortonian . .

The relations of the different faunas as shown by this table must give
a very definite idea of the relative ages of the strata. The conclusion to
which it leads is in perfect accord with that at which I had previously
arrived by employing the criteria of stratigraphy and of the percentage of
Recent species.

The percentage of the species of the Hampden fauna which occurs in
each of the other strata is relatively low, and clearly points to the con-
siderable antiquity of the Hampden fauna. So far as the other localities

248 Transactions.

are concerned, the percentage of the Hampden species gradually decreases
from the Wharekuri to the Recent. On the other hand, the percentage
of the Target Gully and of the Awamoa species gradually decreases from the
Wharekuri to the Recent. However, these beds are more closely related
to the Otiake beds below them than to the Wanganui beds above them.
This obviously points to the probability or certainty that there are
intervening beds of an intermediate age which will show a complete faunal
gradation. In fact, the uj^per and lower strata in the Wanganui district
are very different in age, as is clearly shown by the fact that the
higher beds at Castlecliff contain about 90 per cent, of Recent species,
while the beds at Waipipi, near Waverley, contain little more than
65 per cent. This, however, is a matter that will be worked out more
fully subsequently.

The Bortonian, Trelissick, and Pakaurangi faunas are also tabulated in
order that they may be more definitely ^compared with that of the beds
near Oamaru. The Bortonian is clearly seen to approach most nearly to
the Wharekuri strata, and this fact in itself shows (juite clearly that the
basal beds at Borton's are much younger than the basal beds in the Shag
Point - Hampden portion of the Oamaru basin.

The Trelissick formations do not enter so. readily into a comparison
with the strata near Oamaru. The character of the fauna is somewhat
different, as is clearly shown by the fact that there is a high percentage
of lamellibranchs in it. At the same time the upper bed shows a closer
approach to the Otiake stratum than to any other in the Oamaru district.
This is significant, for the lower Trelissick bed is the middle of the lime-
stone horizon in the Canterbury area, while the Otiake bed has the same
position in the local series of Oamaru. The upper Trelissick bed, which
rests directly on the surface of the limestone, is shown by the table to be
much more closely related to the fauna of the Target Gully beds, which
also have the corresponding position with reference to the Oamaru lime-
stone that the Trelissick (2J beds have to the limestone (Amuri limestone)
in that locality.

The fauna of the Pakaurangi beds is also shown to be more closely
related to that of the Target Gully beds than to any other beds of the local
Oamaru area, though there is a fairly close affinity with the fauna of
Otiake — the Oamaru limestone horizon. This again agrees closely with the
stratigraphical position that I have assigned to them. As stated elsewhere,
the Pakaurangi beds, in my opinion, rest conformably on the hydraulic
limestone, which I have correlated with the Oamaru limestone* (Otiake
beds), and are therefore the local equivalent of the Target Gully beds. In
applying the table to this matter it must be realized that only 53 per cent,
of the Target Gully fauna could occur in the Pakaurangi beds, as is shown
by the actual numbers of the species that have been collected. On the
other hand, 100 per cent, of the Otiake fossils could occur in it.

The considerations that have been stated in this paper seem to me to
justify the proposal to use the palaeontology of the strata near Oamaru
as a basis for the correlation of the Oamaru system of rocks, and I would

♦Thomson (Trans. X.Z. In.sL, vol. 4S, p. 49, lOKi) objects to the correlation of
the hydraulic limestone of North Auckland with the Amuri limestone. It is a fact,
however, that the hydraulic limestone rests on strata which contains a Senonian fauna
and is covered by "strata which contains a Tertiary fauna - the criterion gi\ en by
Thomson for the stratigraphical position of the Amuri limestone.

Marshall. — Fauna of the Hampden Beds. 249

now suggest the following divisions of the system in amplification of that
proposed by me in a former paper* : —

0 AMARU System.
Probable European equivalent, Senonian to Pliocene.

Castlecliff Series (80-90 per cent, of Recent species).

Characteristic fossils : Bezanconia huttoni, Calliostoma ponderosum,
Actaeon ovalis.

Until full collections have been made from these beds it is a little
difficult to fix the boundary -line between them. At present it seems to
me to be best placed at the horizon of the Moa bed, one mile south of the
Xiikumaru Beach.

The beds of the whole system certainly show a complete faunal grada-
tion throughout, and it is therefore impossible to select fossil species that
are entirelv absent from the series above and below. In several cases the
species that have been cited are found also in other series. It is thought,
however, that they are more characteristic of the series under which they
are mentioned than of the others.

Nukumaru Series (70-80 per cent, of Recent species).

Characteristic fossils : Melina zealandica, Lutraria solida, Lucinida levi-
foliata, Ataxocerithium perplexum, Struthiolaria frazeri.

A full list of species from this series has not yet been published, but it
is hoped that this will be done next year. This series probably includes
the Matapiro and Petane beds.

Waipipi Series (60-70 per cent, of Recent species).

Characteristic fossils : Ostrea itigens, Pecten triphooki, Cardimn spatiosum,
Lima waipipiensis, Diplodon ampla.

Collections from this locality are not yet completed. It is probable that
localities near Hawera and in the higher portions of the Wanganui River
contain a fauna that will fill in the gap between the Waipipi and the Target
Gully series. The probability of this is shown by the collection made by
Park from the Paparoa, on the Upper Wanganui River. t

The Greta and the Awatere beds and those at Castle Point may occupy
a position intermediate between the Target Gully and the lower beds of the
Wanganui coast-line — the Waipipi series. The collections that have been
made up to the present are not sufficiently extensive to settle this matter
definitely.

Target Gully Series (30-40 per cent, of Recent species).

Characteristic fossils : Venericardia pseutes, Terebra orycta, Vexillum
rutilidommn, Murex octogonus, Calyptraea maccoyi, Turbonilla oamarutica,
Murex angasi, Chama huttoni, Fusinus cUmacotus.

Nearly all species, however, are found in higher or in lower strata as
well as in the Target Gully beds. In addition to species previously recorded
from these beds I wish now to record Venericardia hollonsi, Ficus suhtran-
sennus, Loripes concinna, Drillia laevis, Nucula sagittata, Leda semiteres.

* P. Makshall, Tran.'i N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, p. 119, 1916.

t J- Park Reports Geol Exploratioiis during 1886-87, p. 1 7.'5, 1 887

250 Transactions.

The strata called elsewhere in this paper " Trelissick (2)," the Pakaii-
rangi beds, and the sandy beds of the lower Waipara Gorge should probably
be placed here.

Ototara Series (25-30 per cent, of Recent species).

Characteristic fossils : Pecten athleta, P. hochstetteri, P. williamsoni,
Ostrea nelsoniana, Lima laevigata.

This series is more definitely marked lithologically than palaeontologic-
ally, for it consists mainly of the limestone stratum which has such a
geiieral occurrence throughout New Zealand and but seldom contains niol-
luscan fossils. Nearly all tlie fossils that have been found in this limestone
have been found in higher and in lower horizons as well.

^o^

Wharekuri Series (20-25 per cent, of Recent species of MoUusca).

Characteristic fossils : Surcula serotina, Borsonia mitromorphoides,
Fusinus maorianus, Exilia dalli, Crussatellites subobesus, Niso neozelanica,
Polinices kuttoni, Turriiella ambulacrum.

Since my previous publication on the Wharekuri beds the following
additional species of MoUusca have been collected : Turris subaltus n. sp.,
Cucullaea australis, Terebra orycta, Terebra sulcata Marshall, Crassatellites
subobesus n. sp., Panope orbita, Divaricella cumingi, Argobuccinum ? sj).,
Canlium waitakiense, Marginella harrisi, Typhis maccoyi, Borsonia mitro-
morphoides, Chione sp., Siphonalia subnodosa, Zenatia acinaces, Fusinus
maorianus.

The Waihao greensands are probably to be placed in this series.

Wangaloa Series (0-20 per cent, of Recent Species of MoUusca).

Characteristic fossils : Gilbertia, Perissolax, Heteroterma, Dicroloma,
Volutoderma, Struthiolaria minor, Pugnellus australis.

Waipara Series (Senonian).

Characteristic fossils : Trigonia hanetiana, Inoceramus australis, Con-
chothyra parasitica, Belemnites lindsayi, Kossmaticeras, Baculites, Mosasaurus.

Art. XXIV. — Occurrence of Fossil Moa-hones in (he Lower Wajiganui

Strata.

By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.

[Read before the Warujainii Ffiilusophical Society, 7th December, WIS ; received by
difor, 30th Dcronbcr, 1918 ; issued sejmratdy, 16th July, 1919.]

Plate XMIl.

No occurrence of fossil remains of the larger species of moa has yet been
recorded. Such records as there are of fossil moa-remains were collected
by Hutton {Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 24, p. 141, 1891). Since the publication
of that paper no further record has been made. If it be true, as I
have often advocated, that the area of New Zealand has practically
been isolated since the Upper Cretaceous period, the development of
the numerous species of moa must have taken place within the limits

Marshall. — Fossil Moa-hones in Lower Wanganui Sfrafa. 251

of this country. Since there is a great mass of Tertiar}- rucks in New
ZeaUiud. and they are often of a shallow-water origin, it was reasonable
to expect that at some time or other remains of the moa would be found
in them. It was therefore with some satisfaction tliat last summer a few-
bones were discovered embedded in the papa rock forming the cliffs near
the Nukumaru Beach. The greater number of the bones were in a
poorly preserved condition, but a portion of one femur (Plate XVIII) was
in a sufficiently good condition to be identified. It was sent to Professor
W. B. Benhani, of Otago University, who M^as good enough to compare it
with the large collection of moa-bones in the Otago Museum. My thanks
are due to him for the following report on the specimen : —

" The curious trellis of bone lining the medullary cavity is quite similar
to what occurs in the long bones of the moas. From our extensive stock
of moa-bones I selected for comparison those of Dinornis robustus, and
find a very close resemblance to the femur of that species, both in size,
details of surface-marking, and thickness of outer wall as seen in trans-
verse section. One small feature that seems characteristic is the smaU
size of the vascular foramen on the posterior face, which is not only
relativelv smaller in proportion to the size of the femur in this species but
absolutely smaller than in other species. Taking this as a starting-point,
comparison of the ridges and prominences on this surface agrees quite
closely, though not absolutely, with those on D. robustus, where they
are more prominent and rather differently formed. This no doubt is
explicable by wear and liy variation in individuals, or possibly it is specific.

Femur of Dinornis robustus, showing position of fragment found at Xukuniaru.

" I send an outline tracing of the right femur of D. robustus with the
fragment shown in position. [See text-figure.] It will be seen, therefore,
that the fossil is a portion of the shaft just below the great trochanter. . .

'■ Whether the species is D. robustus or an allied species it would be diffi-
cult to decide, but the bird must have been of the same size as that. . . ."

The actual locality where the specimen was found is about three-quarters
of a mile south of the Nukumaru Beach. The stratum is composed of a
fine pebbly material with much unctuous blue clay. The pebbles are not
composed of local material, but seem to be derived from the rocks of
north-west Nelson. I have previously drawn attention to the probability
of the micaceovis sand of Wanganui having its origin in the granite rocks
of Nelson. The stratum is regularly interbedded with the other strata
of which the cliff is formed, and, like them, it dips south-west 5°.
A preliminary estimate shows that this stratum lies about 1,000 ft. below
the highest beds at Castlecliff.

252

Transactions.

iMcinida levifoliata Marshall and
Murdocli

Lutraria solida Hutton
Mactra discors Gray
Mesodesma australe (Ginelin)
- suhtriangidatnm (Gray)
Ostrea angasi Sowerby
Psammohia lineolata Gray
Turritella rosea Q. & G. '
Venerieardia zelandica (Deshayes)
austrahs Lamarck

Ancilla novae-zelandiae (Sowerby)

depressa (Sowerby)

Aiaxocermum perplexus Marshall

and Murdoch
Barnea. smiilis (Gray)
Chione crassa Q. and G.

stutchhuryi (Gray)

Cominella macidosa (Martyn)
Crepidula gregaria Sowerby
tytherea oblonga (Hanley) '
Ethalia zelandica (H. & J.)

This list contains twenty-two snecie^ nf ,,.i • x. ^
occurrence of re.odesma alstralZ^^.f.C'f " ^^^^-^"^«t• The

nu„tb«''TSs''™t"„urat\!°T 'If' -'"-^ ^'l b-™-" a larger

no... T.e ,„„o. ™- :• : ^ Mitt::^^;^^-;^^^^^^^^^^^^ .'-'«

Anachis pisaniopsis (Hutton) " - ' ■~

Ancilla novae-zelandiae (Sowerby)

lata Hutton

Anoynia hiittoni Suter

Calliosfoma hodgei (Hutton)

selectmn (Chemnitz)

ponderosum (Hutton)

Calyptraea alia (Hutton)

maculata (Q. & G.)

scutum Lesson

Cantharidus purpwatus (Martyn)

(^fitone spissa (Dcshaves)

disjecta Perry.

~ — stutchburiji (Gray)
Cominella virgafa A/Ad.
Crepidida crepidula Linn.

gregaria Sowerby

Divaricella cumingi (Ad. & Ang )
iJosinia suhrosea (Gray)
Epitonium zelebori (Dunker)
Ethalia zelandica (H. & J.)

Euthria striata (Hutton)

drewi (Hutton)

Fulgoraria arabica (Martyn)
Lucinida concinna Hutton
— - levifoliata Marshall and Mur-
doch

Liftraria solida Hutton
Mangilia protensa (Hutton)
Mehna zealandiae Suter.
Mytilus magellanicus Lamarck
Papha intermedia (Q. & G )
Pecten zelandiae Gray
Seila chathamensis Suter
Siphonalia suhnodosa (Hutton)
Struthiolaria frazeri Hutton
Trochus tiaratus Q. & G.
Trophon ambiguus (Philippi)

cheesemani (Hutton)

Turbonilla zealandica (Hutton)
Turntella rosea Q. & G.
■symmetrica Hutton

I'apha intermedia, 65 mm. (Manual 67 mm r • (""*«;, '5 mm.) ;
iarger than „tW. Recent c Li, spLel iTa'at g™rm''l/:;;^£LVI '""

Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. LI.

Plate XVIII.

o;

.4 '^

r V

^

' ^'M

. '.'S-'*' h

■/?■■ ^.-S

-^"ll,

'\

o
o

s

IT

el
o

cS

o

s

o

o

s

Face p. 252.]

)0

Marshall. — Fossil Moa-bones in Lower Wanganui Sfrafa. 253

It is interesting to have definite evidence that the large species of
Dinornis existed when so many extinct species and genera of Molhisca were
still living in New Zealand waters.

It is perhaps worth noting that Lutraria solida has not yet been found
in any beds on the coast-line higher than that containing the moa-bones.
Of other well-known extinct species of MoUusca the following information
has now been gained so far as occurrence in the strata on the coast-line is
concerned : Melina zelandica, Struthiolaria frazeri, and Crepidula gregaria
first occur in the bed that has been mentioned 40 ft. below the moa-bed,
and Cardium spatiosum and Ostrea ingens are first fomid at "Wilkie's Bluff,
close to the south of the Waitotara mouth. Ghjajmeris subglobosa first
ccurs two miles north of the Waitotara. At Mokoia, close to Hawera,
shell of Dosinia magna was obtained.

From the collections that have been made at present it seems that
about 90 per cent, of the Mollusca in the Castlecliff beds are of Recent
occurrence. In the moa-bed there are about 80 per cent, of Recent species.
At the Waipipi Beach, five miles north of the Waitotara mouth, the
percentage falls perhaps as low as 65.

I hope to publish a fuller statement of this matter, with lists of the
species, next year.

Art. XXV. — Some New Fossil Species of Mollusca.

By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.vS., and R. Murdoch.

[Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 20th December, 1918 ; received by
Editor, 31st December, 1918 ; issued separately, 16th July, 1919.]

Plates XIX-XXI.

The species of fossil Mollusca which are described in the following pages
have been collected from Tertiary beds in several dift'erent localities. Some
of the specimens were submitted to the late Mr. Suter, but he had no time
to describe them.

The following species were found at Wharekuri, on the Waitaki River,
a few miles above Kurow : Fusinus maoriuni., Leucosyrinx subaltus, and
Crassatellifes siihobesus. The material from which they were taken is
argillaceous greensand, which in this locality rests upon quartz sands,
which contain coal-seams. Altogether seventy-five species of Mollusca
have been found in these beds, and 24 per cent, of these are Recent
species. We regard this bed as a stratigraphical series in the Oamaru
system, lying below the Ototara limestone.

Ficus imperfectus was found at Target Gully, as well as Venericardia
hollonsi Suter and Drillia laevis (Hutton), two species which have not
previously been recorded from that locality. These species raise the total
number collected at Target Gully to 223. " Some 34 per cent, of these are
Recent. The horizon is 40 ft. above that of the Ototara stone. It has
been placed by Marshall in the Awamoa series of the Oamaru system.

Lima waipipiensis was found at the Waipipi Beach, five miles from
Waverley. The horizon is probably some 1, 500-2, 500 ft. below the highest

254 Transactions.

part of the CastleclifE beds at Wanganui. Such well-known fossil species
as Lidmria solida, Cardium spatiosiim, Ostrea ingens, and Peden trij^hooJci
have been found in the same bed. In a collection which is quite incomplete
some 70 per cent, of the species are Kecent. I propose to call this bed,
from which more complete collections will shortly be made, the Waipipi
series, in the upper part of the Oamaru system.

Luciiiida levifoliaia occurs in the same bed, and also at Nukumaru,
where it is associated with Melina zealandica, Lutraria solida. and Struthio-
laria frazeri. .The whole molluscan fauna so far collected at Nukumaru
contains about 80 per cent, of Kecent species. This horizon also offers
good material for collecting, and will be called the Nukumaru series of
the upper part of the Oamaru system. The series is perhaps 500 ft. above
the Waipipi series.

The two remaining species, Thracia vecjrandis and Surctda castlecliffensis,
came from the Castlecliff Beach, near Wanganui. The percentage of Eecent
species in this fauna approximates to 90. It is the highest described
series of the Wanganui system. A list of the Mollusca found in it will
shortly be published.

Ataxocerithium perplexum ii. sp. (Plate XX, figs. 5, 6.)

Material, two examples, much rolled and having the sculpture almost
erased except on a small area near to the aperture, which is spirally
ribbed ; interspaces and ribs about equal, the latter cut into small gem-
mules by the varying development of the growth-striae. Shell elongated,
turreted, body-whorl exceeding one-third of the total length, base rounded
and with an ill-defined spiral ridge, anterior to which it is rather more
abruptly contracted. Sutures well marked, apparently not channelled.
Apex imperfect. Aperture ovate, produced in a very short open canal :
outer lip more or less channelled above ; body-wall with a well-marked
callus which unites with the columella and forms a distinct ridge : the
columella is slightly arched and twisted to the left at the anterior end.

Length, 34 mm. ; breadth, 11 mm. ; length of aperture with canal,
10 mm.

Locality, Nukumaru, in blue sandy clay. Collector, P. Marshall.

Tyije to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

The examples are much worn, the only area with sculpture being near
to the outer lip. Sculpture on approaching the aperture in many genera
is more or less suppressed : we may therefore reasonably expect a bolder
sculpture on the spire-whorls of better-preserved examples.

Fusinus maorium ii. sp. (Plate XXI, figs. 1, 2.)

Material, two fragments ; the larger consists of the penultimate and
body whorls, with a small part of the canal ; the other, the complete canal
and greater part of body-whorl. Shell fairly large, fusiform, penultimate
whorl subangular at the periphery, body- whorl rounded or slightly angular,
rather abruptly contracted at the base ; longitudinally and spirally ribbed ;
canal long, slender, and almost straight ; sutures deeply impressed, slightl}-
undulating, margined above and below by a small riblet. The longitudinal
ribs are broad and flexuous, about fourteen on a whorl, most prominent
on the periphery, obsolete on the lower portion of the base as it unites with
the canal : interspaces narrower than the ribs, crossed by undulating spiral
cords. On the penultimate whorl there are seven of these, excluding the

Marshall and Murdoch. — New Fossil Si)ecies of Mollusca. 255

small marginals at the sutures ; they are widely spaced, much narrower
than the interspaces, strengthening on the periphery and forming angular
nodules ; on the body-whorl there are ten or eleven spirals similar to the
whorl above except that the basal are less nodular, thence more closely
spaced, smaller and ap]iroximating the spirals on the canal, of which there
are eighteen or more ; in addition there are in the interspaces a few minute
spiral lineations. Strong, irregular growth-lines cut the spirals and nodules
into minute secondary sculpture. Aperture ovate, narrowed into a long
canal ; outer lip sharp, slightly crenulated by the sculpture : inner lip
with a narrow callus continuous with the margin of the canal.

Dimensions (largest fragment): Length, 38mm.; breadth. 24mm.;
aperture, greatest length (excluding canal), 18 mm. The smaller example
has a length of aperture and canal of 30 mm.; breadth of body-whorl,
19 mm. The largest fragment is somewhat compressed and distorted.

Localitv. Wharekuri. in brown sand. Collector, P. Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

The species is perhaps nearest to F.solidus Suter, recorded from South
Canterbury and North Otago.

Ficus imperfectus n. sp. (Plate XXI, fig. 4.)

The material comprises a single example only, of which a considerable
portion of the outer lij) is broken away, also some small part of the
columella. The example gives the impression that it is not adult. Shell
small, fragile, pyriform, spire slightly elevated, last whorl rounded, the
area between the suture and a line with the outer lip very slightly convex,
and giving it a slightly shouldered appearance ; canal fairly long, anteriorly
somewhat curved and twisted to the left. Whorls about four, those of
the spire sloping-convex ; })rotoconch small, slightly rounded ; the first
two volutions smooth, thence minute irregular growth-striae, followed bj'
delicate but well-marked transverse riblets, which as the whorl progresses
assume a slightly backward slope ; fine spiral threadlets make their appear-
ance. The shell is slightly rubbed, and it is quite probable that the
sculpture may extend to all the whorls. On the last whorl the sculpture is
more strongly developed, the longitudinals somewhat irregularly disposed,
narrower than the interspaces, slightly fiexuous on the shoulder, and
becoming obsolete on the canal ; a secondary sculpture of minute threadlets
adorns both riblets and interspaces ; spirals on the area between suture and
shoulder minute, on the shoulder and anteriorly strengthening and form-
ing small nodules on the axial sculpture, the interspaces wider than the
cords and with one or more minute threadlets ; on the canal the spirals
smaller and more closely spaced. Sutures narrow and slightly impressed.
Columella smooth, slightly curved, and thinly calloused. Aperturi^ im])erfect.

Length, 10 mm. ; breadth, 5-5 mm.

Locality, Target Gully. Collector, P. Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

The species is perhaps n<>arest to F. parvus Suter, fi-om which it may be
distinguished by the axial riblets and the small but well-marked nodules
on the last whorl.

Surcula castlecliffensis n. sp. (Plate XXI, fig. 3.)

Shell small, fusiform, spire turreted, aperture and canal about equal to
half the total length. Whorls seven ; protoconch about one and a half
volutions, smooth and with an angular ridge ; succeeding whorls strongly

256 Transactions.

angled slightly below the middle ; the angle or keel with oblique longitudinal
short nodular ribs, directed backwards, about eighteen on the penultimate
whorl ; as the whorls progress there are one, two, and three fine undulating
spiral grooves which cut the axial ribs into fine gemmules ; the shoulder
slightly concave, with two or three fine spiral lines ; below the angle straight
or slightly concave, and with two ill-defined low spirals on the penultimate
whorl. Body-whorl below the angular shoulder slightly contracted, more
pronounced on approaching the canal ; the latter long, tapering, and
somewhat twisted to the left ; below the nodular area there are three or
four rather widely spaced small grooves and a number of very minute
threadlets on the canal. Sutures well margined above by a small rounded
riblet ; aperture ovate, narrowed below into a fairly long open canal ;
cohimolla and inner lip with a thin callus ; outer lip with a fairly deej)
rounded sinus situate between the angle and suture, its position on the
lower whorls marked by the growth-lines.

Length, 12 mm. ; breadth, 4-5 mm.

Locality, Castlecliff, in blue sandy clay. Collector, P. Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

The species is perhaps nearest to S. obliquecostata Suter, from which it
may be distinguished by the position of the sutural rib.

Leucosyrinx subaltus n. sp. (Plate XX, fig. 7.)

Shell elongate-fusiform ; spire-whorls with a strong acute keel a little
below the middle, absent on the protoconch ; the apical whorl is lost, but
the adjoining portion is smooth and rounded ; body- whorl strongly and
sharply keeled, a second low blunt angulation below it, the area between
them slightly concave ; the spire-whorls above the keel sloping and slightly
concave, below sharply contracted and somewhat concave. Sculpture
(except the ])rotoconch) : All whorls with closely spaced small spiral riblets,
which the irregular growth-striae cut into minute gemmules. Whorls
about eight, regularly increasing, the last (with the canal) exceeds the spire
in length. Sutures linear. Aperture : The outer lip imperfect, certainly
strongly angular above, contracted anteriorly, and terminates in a fairly
long canal ; columella nearly straight. Sinus between the keel and suture
not well marked.

Length, 30 mm. ; breadth, 11 mm.

Locality, Wharekuri. Collector, P. Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

The species is perhaps nearest to L. alta (Harris) var. transenna Suter,
from which it may be distinguished by the uniform spiral sculpture on all
whorls exce])t the protoconch, and In' its more robust form.

Lima waipipiensis n. sp. (Plate XIX, fig. 1.)

Shell large, irregularly ovate, inequilateral, sculptured with fourteen
strong radiating ribs, narrower than the interspaces ; these are crossed by
irregularly developed growth-striae, which form frequent but irregularly
disposed hollow scales on the ribs. Beak curved forward, " imperfect."
Ears — anterior very small, irregularly ribbed ; posterior larger, obtusely
angular, sculptured with a few small riblets and numerous growth-striae.
The anterior end short, the margin descending abruptly and distinctly
concave in the dorsal third, thence straight, inclining outwards until
coalescing in the basal curve ; submargin straight and forming a slight
angle on meeting the lower curve of the valve ; the submarginal area bent

Marshall and Murdoch. — i\'ew Fossil Species of MoUusca. 257

inwards, long, narrow, and concave above, sculptured with rough irregular
lines of growth ; the posterior margin forms a broad uniform curve from
the ear to the centre of base, thence the curve gradually becomes steeper.
Interior with shallow radiating grooves corresponding with the external ribs ;
adductor impression large, indistinct ; hinge broken ; margin of the valve
sharp and undulating.

Dimensions (right valve) : Height, 76 mm. ; length, 60 mm. ; diameter,
13 mm.

Locality, Waipipi, in a fine bluish-grey sand. Collector, P. Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

The description is derived from a right valve. The species belongs to
the L. lima group, and may be distinguished from other of our fossil forms
by being shorter comparative to its height, and by the fewer and more
distinct ribs.

Crassatellites subobesus n. sp. (Plate XIX, figs. 2, 3.)

Shell elongately ovate, inequilateral ; anterior area short and convex ;
posterior attenuated, the end obUquely truncated ; continuous with the
curve of the umbo, and extending to the lower margin of the truncation
is a broadly rounded ridge, the area above being flattened or slightly concave
towards the posterior end, giving the dorsal area a winged appearance.
Beaks less than one-third from the anterior end, incurved, and directed
forward. Lunule deeply impressed, oval ; escutcheon long, narrow, and
concave. Sculpture consists of small, rounded, concentric riblets, rather
less than two per millimetre, and about the same width as the interspaces,
on the posterior dorsal area irregular, mostly coarse striations ; towards
the base the ribs are more or less irregularly developed and spaced, with
a number of growth-striae in the interspaces. Marginal contour : The
anterior end from the beak steeply declining, straight, thence broadly
rounded ; the base a wide sweeping curve, becoming flattened as it
approaches the posterior end ; posterior dorsal margin sloping downwards,
straight or slightly concave, the end obliquely truncated. Interior of left
valve-margin smooth ; adductor impressions and pallial lines impressed.
Hinge with three diverging cardinals, united above, the posterior slender,
the lower limbs of the two anterior narrowly separate ; posterior lateral
forms a long rounded rib with a deep groove above ; anterior area a broad
shallow groove, above which is a stout rib ending abruptly at the anterior
end of the umbonal margin.

Dimensions : Height, 32 mm. ; length, 54 mm. ; diameter of perfect
specimen, 20 man.

Locality, Wharekuri. Collector, P. Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

The species is perhaps nearest to C. obesus (A. Adams) = trailli Hutton ;
the latter is distinctly triangular, and has a less winged appearance
posterio-dorsally.

The material consists of one perfect specimen and a left valve ; the
former is filled with matrix, and it appears too risky to attempt to separate
the valves.

Lucinida levifoliata n. sp. (Plate XX, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4.)

Shell orbicular, subglobose, nearly equilateral, juvenile examples more
lenticular ; beaks contiguous, directed forward, sharply incurved, and termi-

9— Trans.

258 Transactions.

nating in a small point ; the lunule deeply impressed, ovate. Sculpture
consists of irregularly spaced, small, sharp concentric lamellations with fine
growth-striae in the interspaces, the lamellae as a rule become more
irregular as the base is approached, usually crowded in places marking
periods of rest ; radiate sculpture is very minute, almost absent in some
examples. On the posterior area of the shell is a feeble radiating flexure ;
the anterior dorsal area is defined by a distinct flexure, excavate aboye,
and the margin expanded. Marginal contour : The posterior dorsal margin
declining, sHghtly curved, distinctly angular on meeting the broad almost
uniform curve which extends around the base and terminates at the anterior
flexure ; anterior dorsal margin immediately in front of the umbo distinctly
concave, thence a well-marked rounded projection followed by a shallow
concavity. Interior of valves with distinct radiations ; anterior adductor-
scar elongated ; the posterior irregularly ovate. Hinge : Right valve
with two cardinals, the posterior strongest, usually bifid and a distinct pit
on either side ; anterior lateral, a stout rib with a small tubercule towards
the end ; posterior lateral simj)le : left valve with two diverging cardinals,
the anterior usually bifid ; anterior lateral distant, the posterior long and
well developed.

Dimensions : Height, 20 mm. ; length, 22 mm. ; diameter, 13 mm.

Locality, Nukumaru, in blue sandy clay (type) ; also Waipipi, near
Waverley. Collector, P. Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

The Waipipi example is imjjerfect : its dimensions (approximate) —
height, 24 mm. ; length, 25 mm. A smaller but perfect example from
Nukumaru is chosen as type.

Thracia vegrandis n. sp. (Plate XXI, figs. 5, 6, 7.)

Shell small, fragile, oblong, inequilateral, equivalve, truncated posteriorly.
Beaks within the posterior third shghtly curving backwards, not prominent.
A blunt angular ridge extends from the beak to the basal margin of the
truncation ; in some examples there is a very small ridge which unites with
the dorsal margin of the truncation, the area thus defined is flattened and
somewhat excavate. Contour : Anterior dorsal margin long with a slightly
downward slope, almost straight, the end rounded, the curve rather narrower
above ; base slightly curved, almost straight, posterior dorsal margin short,
slightly excavate below the beak, declining more rapidly than the anterior
margin ; the end truncated and slightly oblique. Sculpture consists of
very fine concentric growth-striae, with usually a few feebly marked rest-
periods. The valves are slightly rubbed, and there is no indication of
radiate sculpture. Interior margins smooth, adductor-scars and pallial
line indistinct, the anterior scar the smaller, the pallial sinus aj)parently not
large. Hinge without teeth, deeply cleft under the apex, a comparatively
strong oblique and inward-projecting lithodesma posterior to the beak.

Dimensions : Height, 8 mm. ; length, 14 mm. ; diameter (single valve),
2-5 mm.

Locality, Castlecliff, blue sandy clay. Collector, P. Marshall.

Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.

The material consists of several valves. It is distinguished from
T. vitrea (Hutton) by its smaller size, more oblong form, the truncation
comparatively broader, and the less curved basal margin.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate XIX.

f«: <■

Y

"A,

li

•^^

••/.v.

1

»"«.

-i^,-;

4^..

^¥

^-'

Fig. 1. — Lima waijri'piensis n. sp. Natural size.

Figs. 2, 3. — Crassatelliles subobesus n. si^. Natural size.

Face p. 258.1

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate XX.

\

2

y

^

^X

%^

■.;^

Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4. — Lucinida levifoUata n. sp. >; H-.
Figs. 5,- 6. — Ataxocerlthium perplcxum n. sp.
Fig. 7. — Leucosyrinx subaltus n. sp.

li

X li-.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate XXI.

7

6; .:

Figs. 1, 2. — Fusinus maorium n. sp. X li.
Fig. 3. — Surcula castlecliffensis n. sf). X 2^.
Fig. 4. — Ficus inijjerfectus n. sp. X 2^.
Figs. 5, 6, 7. — T/r c«a vegrandis n. sp. X 2^.

Fletcher. -Z;V/6Z. Fish, d-c, of Taupo-nui-o-Tia.

259

ra

Art. XXYL--The Edible Fish, &c., of Taupo-nui-a-m.
By the Eev. H. J. Fletcher, Taupo.

{Read before the Wellington PhihsopUcal Society, 18th December, 1918 ■ received bv
Eddor, 31st December, 1918; issued separately, 16th July, l9iy.^ "^ ^^

For the purposes of this paper we use the name Taupo-nui-a-Tia as

describing Lake Taupo and its watershed. It includes the iX and aTl

the streams running into it, the Poutu Stream, Roto-a-Ira and the st earns

running into it. The area is a very large one. It extends from he wX

hed between the Rangitikei and Whaiigaehu Rivers, which flow toTvards'

the west coast of the ^orth Island, and the sources of the WaiWo pTver

which flow into the Taupo Lake, on to some distance bej 'ond t^L '^rthern

end of the lake, a distance from north to south of over sLty m es From

ea.st to west it extends from the summits of the Kaimaiawa Rmoe^r

Hauhungaroa and Hurakia Ranges, a distance of about fifi; .."f Its

area would be reckoned at about 2,000 square miles

Ihroughout the whole of this laro-e aren fliP ppI +1..+
valuable f„oc, to Maons ■„ othe- nt^?: tZZ d '« ts ^Tj^^Zl
mfcnown. There are stories of large eels ha^i,,., been caiwht in P^^ o T '^
m days gone by. but „one for ma„; years past. ' S„2 ™„ are C™t'
to haye seen an eel m the Toka-am, Stream nnite reeentk hnt it Si
caught. Eels are caught in the small stream! n^nn^Tt'l^tXZZ
nui R ver which have then- source on the slopes of fonearir^ Whanga

a,,ve to Taupo and liberated with XTdl^'orsSi^lg"!: Tat 'Tt
sad that some members of the Armed Constabulary cau.ht some eels in
a ributary of the Mohaka and liberated them m Roto-ngS[„ TZ^lke
that «npties itself into Taupo. Of course, all such aftempts Siln

The fish &.C., caught in various ways and used .as food are known „„/l^,.

fb:S=arc^cZnltrw^^^^^^^^

KOKOPU.

fe m? I'^madTtrX tttoZ t^Jn If t^Z ""l^e'' ^'' °' ^^

could be gathered in au^tied fast T^ n ''i""™ "t" '"'«^'' '" «'''* '^
of emptying the net On the t i , ^f"''' '"' ™"«^ ^°' ^^^ Pu^-pose
fastened'^a/baTt Is the VotXwas for "'' T' '"""''' '""'' "="^'""y
tW-p,y plait was ^..^.TS^ ^r^^Jt^: ^1:1

260 Transactions.

used in a most ingenious way to serve the double purpose of reel and
float. This float was about 2 ft. long, the mid-section roughly an oval,
the major diameter being 6 in. and the minor 3 in. For about one-third
of its length at each end a portion was cut away, leaving two long horns.
A section of a Nottingham fishing-reel would exactly show the shape in
miniature. Its local name is 'poito. Two stone sinkers were fastened to
the inside of the pouraM, the bait carefully tied in place, the line wound
on the jpoito, and then the fisherman went off in his canoe to the selected
spot to try his luck. The time selected for placing the nets was at evening.
The fisherman was guided to the best places by marks on shore, and at
each place known to the fisherman a pouraJca would be let down until all
would be set. The poito would serve as a float, a hitch round one of the
horns making it stand upright in the water. In the morning the nets were
visited and lifted to see what had been caught. The poito was first placed
on the canoe and then the rope carefully pulled up. If the p)ouraha
was full the fisherman would know by the agitation of the water in it as
soon as it came in sight. It was lifted on board, the bottom of the net
untied, and the Tiokopu emptied into the bottom of the canoe. Fresh
bait was then attached and the pouraka lowered again at the same
spot. All the pouraka were visited in succession ; if any of them were
found empty they were taken on to some other spot. The kokopu caught
in this way were about the length of a man's hand, and they were very
fat. The time of fishing was from November to March.

Another method of catching kokopu was by means of a tati. In
February or March, when the new fern [Pteris esculenta) was fully grown,
men cut large bundles of it and left them to dry. While the fern was
drying they prepared a long and strong rope, plaiting it of fiax. The length
of the rope would be from 40 to 50 fathoms. A number of shorter lengths
of light three-ply plaited flax ropes were prepared. When all the material
was ready it was taken to a suitable spot. A strong stake was driven
in on the edge of the shore and the thick rope firmly attached. The
lighter ropes were fastened at suitable intervals along the whole length
of the main rope to within a short distance of the end farthest out from
the shore. To this end a heavy stone was attached to serve as an anchor.

Large bundles of the prepared fern were firmly tied to the free ends
of the lighter ropes, and when all was ready the bundles of fern were
lovrered into the water. A poito was fastened to the large rope near the
junction of the first short line. Sometimes as many as thirty bundles of
fern would be fastened to the main line.

The bundles would be lifted during the daytime, and very great care
was taken to pull the bundles up one at a time in such a way that no
sudden jar was given to them. The bundles were either shaken into the
canoe, or a net called a karapa was passed under the bundle to catch the
kokopu as they fell from the fern. This method of catching kokopu was
practised from the month of April to the end of September.

There was a method of taking a large variety of kokojm, known as
kokop)U-para, in the rivers by the use of a bob. This is the common
instrument in use for catching eels in other places. A number of worms
were threaded on some dressed flax and tied in a bunch to the end of a
short, thin rod. The fish would bite the worms and be suddenly jerked
into a canoe, or, if the fishing was from the shore, upon the dry land.

Kokopu when eaten fresh were, without any preparation, steamed in
a Maori oven and eaten as a relish with fern-root, kmnara, or, in more

Fletcher. — Edible Fish, dec, of Taupo-nui-o-Tia. 261

modern times, with potatoes. They were sometimes dried in the sun by
first threading them on fine strips of flax and hanging them up in the wind
and sun to dry. When sufficiently dry they were placed in the storehouses
for future use.

The following story tells how a place famous for its kohopu was discovered
in Taupo Moana over three hundred years ago. A man named Kopeke
w'as living at Tu-tete, on the eastern side of Taupo and north of the
Hine-maiai River. One morning in early summer he noticed a number of
shags going away out on the lake seeking food for their young. They went
away out beyond any shallow known to the Maoris, and Kopeke knew there
must be some spot out there where it w^as not too deep for the shags to
get fish. One calm morning Kopeke and his men went out to see if they
could find the spot where the shags had been fishing. They came at last
to a shallow spot which they called Popoia-nga-oheohe. It is otherwise
known as " The roof of the house of Horo-matangi." A net was tried, and
in a very short time they got a very large haul of kokopu. The right to
fish on that reef was retained by Kopeke and his descendants right up to
the present time. The right is given in the proverb, " The fish in calm
water are for everybody ; the fish in the current are for Kopeke."

After heavy winds koko-pu were cast up on the beaches in large numbers
and gathered and used for food. The larger varieties were afiiicted by a
small parasite in the shape of a thread-worm about 1| in. long.

Inanga.

Inanga were caught in two different ways. One way was by means
of a Jiinaki. Hinaki for this purpose were not very large, nor were they
made so strong as the hinaki-tuna. The general shape was the same, but
the material used was a strong species of rush that grows among manuka
{Leptospermum) in dry situations.

When using a liimiki a suitable place was chosen on the edge of a stream.
Experience and judgment were shown in selecting a suitable spot on the
river-bank, for unless a good spot was chosen no fish would be caught.
A trap was mad^ at the place selected by driving in a few pieces of mamika
or other suitable stakes at a slight angle out into the stream. Any light
material was interlaced between the stakes to form a barrier that the fish
could not pass. At the narrow place the hinaki was securely fastened
with the mouth in the narrow gap. The young fish ascending the river
would crowd into the place prepared for them and pass on into the hinaki ;
their further progress was blocked, and there was no return. The wily
fisherman would examine his trap at frequent intervals and enjoy the fruits
of his cunning. This method of catching inanga was practised from the
beginning of September to the end of January. The young of the kokopu
would be caught with the inanga and would be reckoned under the general
term inanga.

In Dominion Museum, Bulletin No. 2, page 56, there is a plate showing
" a small fish-trap (set), Tongariro River." On page 67 we are informed
that the trap is for eels and small fish. For " eels and small fish " read
" inanga.''

The other method of catching inanga was by means of a net. This net
was known as a kupenga, and it was used in almost the same way as the
seine or large drag-net of European use. The length of the inanga net
varied from 50 to 100 yards, and its depth from 6 ft. to 8 ft. The diagram
given on page 72 of the Bulletin quoted above gives a fair idea of an inanga

262 Transactions.

net. It was made of very thin strips of flax worked into a small mesh ;
this, the central part of the net itself, was called a haka. The rope along
the top was called kahanmga, the bottom rope kaharaw, the floats j^oito,
and the sinkers karihi. My informant was unable to give me the name of
the manuka spreaders. Page 65 of the Bullet in illustrates a bunch of floats.
There were two methods of using the net — one from a canoe tied by the
middle thwart to a pole firmly fixed in a shallow spot, the other from the
shore. When used from a canoe, another canoe started out from the bow
of the anchored canoe with from 200 to 500 yards of rope. When this was
all out the net was put overboard, roughly at right angles to the line, and
when all the net was out the canoe returned to the stern of the anchored
canoe with another long length of line. The net was then pulled steadily
in towards the anchored canoe. The same process was used from the
shore, but in the case of the canoe the lines were coiled up in the bow and
stern, leaving the centre free for the inanga to be emptied out of the net.
Some of the shallow spots on the eastern side of the lake where the anchored-
canoe method was used were the places named Te Rimu, Nga-Parenga-rua,
Te Hohonu, Karanga-wairua, Te Tii, Te Purakau, and others.

There is an ancient story that seems to illustrate the method of fishing
from the shore. The date of the story is at least 250 years ago. On one
occasion Uru-taraia was using a net in the lake for the purpose of catching
inanga. Tutetawha went on board the canoe that was carrying the net
and paddled to the place where it was to be used. The net was cast into
the water some distance from the shore and then dragged ashore, bringing
the fish in front of it. As the ends of the net were brought close to the
shore, so the inanga came too, and the stretchers stirred up the fish to
the top of the water. Uru-taraia jumped into the water to press down the
bottom line of the net, at the same time peering into the water. Tutetawha
picked up some stones and threw them into the water to drive the fish back
into the net. One of them fell just where Uru-taraia'a eyes were fixed.
The splashing of the water wet the whole of his face. He uttered a curse
which led to bloodshed at no distant date.

In addition to the places named above, there were many other places
where inanga were caught, the ownership of such places and the right to
catch fish in them being carefully conserved. The time of fishing was from
September to March. The fish so caught were eaten as a relish with pounded
fern-root or kumara, and in modern times with potatoes. They were also
dried in the sun and stored for future use.

A net such as described has not been used in Taupo for many years.
The writer has seen a length of scrim used as a substitute.

KOURA,

On page 73 of the Bulletin already mentioned there is a good illustration
of a Tou koura of the kind used in the olden days at Tau2:)o. The frame of
the mouth was made of manuka, the straight j^iece at the bottom being
of much heavier timber than the curved portion. The net portion was
made of fine strips of undressed flax. An old Maori recently drew the
outline of one of these obsolete nets, and from his sketch, which was full
size, traced on the road, we could see that the bottom rod was from 6 ft.
to 8 ft. long. The length of the net was from 8 ft. to 9 ft., tapering from
the mouth towards the back to about 3 ft. from the end. This last 3 ft.
was straight, and about 1 ft. in diameter. The sinkers were attached
exactly as shown in the illustration referred to.

Fletciter. — Edihlf Fish, cC'c, of Tavpo-rud-o-Tia. 2G3

When the net was used it was taken out a long distance from the shore
and lowered overboard, care being taken that it was the right wa}^ up.
It was then hauled ashore. Very large catches were sometimes made in
this way. Koura were also caught by means of bunches of fern, as
described under the heading of " Kokopu.'' The writer has seen as many
koura as kokopu shaken out of the bunch of fern into the bilge of a canoe.

Of late 3^ears it has been a common practice for Maori women to grope
for koura among the weeds in the lake and rivers, and also under rocks
and stones along the edge of the lake.

There is a photograph reproduced on page 55 of the Bitlletin already
quoted, and it is called, " Nets for koura, Lake Taupo." It is an exact
illustration of a pouraka with line and reel attached ready for use. We
cannot say that koura were not caught in them, but their chief use was
for catching kokopu, as described above.

Kakahi.

Kakahi is the Maori name of a fresh-water shell-fish which is fairly
common over the greater part of New Zealand. It is common in Taupo
Lake and Roto-a-Ira, and in the streams running into the lakes. Its
average length is 2j in. In the clear water of Lake Taupo it can be seen
pursuing its course over the clear sandy bottom, and leaving its charac-
teristic furrow on the sand. It was never very plentiful, nor was it sought
after so eagerly as kokopu, inanga, and koura. Where it was possible to
reach it in shallow water by hand it was simply picked up and placed in
a kit. In deeper water the method of obtaining it was called rou kakahi.
In Museum Bulletin No. 1, pages 62 and 63, are three illustrations of thes '
dredges. Fig. La was the type in use at Taupo. The ordinary method of
using the implement was carried out by two men. One man, with the
dredge attached to a long pole, would put off from shore in a canoe as far
as he could touch bottom, while the other man stood on shore with the
bow-line of the canoe. The man in the canoe would lightly press the teeth
of the dredge into the sand or mud, and the one on shore would haul the
canoe ashore. Where the water was shallow for a long distance out the
implement was used with the net attached, as shown in the illustration
referred to. For a short distance the dredge was used without the net.
The flesh was taken out of the shells and dried in the sun after being strung
on strips of flax. It then assumed the appearance of small, hard, dark
objects, only suited to the digestion of a Maori or a moa.

KOARO.

Koaro is the Maori name of a small fish obtained under peculiar con-
ditions from Roto-a-Ira and the streams running into the lake. It seems
to have been ignored by ichthyologists, for as far as we are aware it has not
been classified. It has been known to Europeans from the accounts of the
earliest visitors. Bidwill says, " The natives said that there were no fish
in the lake except what I saw, and which were not more than an inch long.
The natives had vast quantities of these dried in baskets, which they cook
by making them into a kind of soup, but which did not smell sufiiciently
nice to tempt me to taste."*

The Rev. R. Taylor in his Maori Dictionary mentions the koaro as a
small fish, about 3 in. long, found in Roto-a-Ira.

There is an ancient lullaby composed by Te Ao-tarewa which speaks of
Nga-toro-i-rangi sowing the seed of the koaro.-\ There is an old Taupo

* Rambles in New Zealand, p. 54. f Pohjnesian Journal, vol. 14, p. 135.

264 Transactions.

proverb which reads, " E noho Jcai ika, kia haere kai rau " (Fish-eaters remain,
net-eaters are going). It refers to an incident during some fighting which
took place just to the south of Roto-a-Ira about two hundred years ago.

The information given in the last edition of Williams's Maori Dictionary
is no further advanced than BidM^ill's — viz., " Koaro, a small fresh- water
fish like inanga."

The fish are caught in hinaki with a special arrangement, called a poha,
attached to the mouth of the hinaki. The hinaki was made of rushes and
the poha of flax. Museum Bulletin No. 2, page 58, has illustrations of two
hinaki with poha attached. The second and fourth are those used for
koaro. There are three streams running into Roto-a-Ira which take their
rise from springs gushing up out of the earth — the Mapouriki and Nga-
puna from Tongariro, and the Waione from Kakaramea. These three were
the best for koaro. The hinaki were pegged down, some with their mouths
up-stream quite close to the source, and others alongside of them with
their mouths down-stream. The fish caught as they came out of the
springs from the underground source were light-coloured, and spotted on
the back ; those caught ascending the stream were dark. The best month
of the year for taking the fish was March. When caught they were spread
out on stones in the sun to dry, and then stored in kits for future use.

These brief notes are written in the past tense, for the old methods of
catching fish are practically extinct. It is only some of the old men who
can explain the use of their old implements.

The introduction of trout to the Taupo Lake and streams put an end
to the native fish and methods of catching them. A koura 5 in. long from
the tip of the claws to the tail was taken recently from the stomach of a
trout.

Art. XXVII. — To what Extent is Earth-rotation the Cause of the Ocean

Currents ?

By A. W. BURRELL.

Communicated by Mr. J. T. Ward.

[Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Society. 11th June, 1918; received by Editor,
20th July, 1918 ; issued separately, 16th July, 1919.]

Plate XXII.

Those who have given the currents of the ocean their serious consideration
must certainly have been struck by the fact that the main currents are
circling in a contrary direction to that in Avhich the earth is rotating- —
that is to say, they are moving in a clockwise direction in the Northern
Hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the Southern. This fact seems to me
to point to a cause governing the movements of the water in both hemi-
spheres, the cause being earth-rotation.

Given a rotating sphere with its surface interspersed with great land
and water areas, in what way will the water behave when acted upon by
the attractive power of external bodies in or near the same plane of
rotation ? It appears to me that currents will undoubtedly be set running
in a contrary direction to that in which the sphere is rotating, more
especially if the land areas extend in a north-and-south direction to fairly
high latitudes, and for this reason : That there exists an affinity, or

BuRRELL. — Earth-roiation and Ocean Currents. 265

clinging tendency, between external bodies and the water is proved by
the sun and moon lifting and drawing the tides westward ; and, as the
tides are always lagging behind these bodies, they must have a strong
tendency to draw the water in a circle towards the Equator on all west
coasts, westward near the Equator, and from the Equator on all east
coasts, thus causing a stream to flow continually in that direction ; but
in reality the sun and moon (and, I suppose, the planets to a small extent)
tend to hold the water, and the earth in turning eastward makes the water
appear to lag behind ; or, in other words, the water is refarded bv these
bodies while the earth rotates eastward.

This does not necessarily imply that the water would flow at the same
rate as the tide, but that the water will have a tendency to be drawn in
that direction as if it were slightly downhill.

This retarding action is continually in operation, and in the same
direction. We have the lunar and anti-lunar, solar and anti-solar tides,
all tending to induce the water by earth-rotation to move in a circle
between the land-masses and the Equator, for the Equator is a boundary
when viewed from the centre of rotation, and naturally the water will
tend to return eastward in higher latitudes to replace that which is being
drawn northward. These latitudes offer less resistance owing to their
being nearer to the neutral line between the opposing tides, and also to
the fact that the gravitational pull of the sun and moon, acting as it does
obliquely to the surface of the water in these latitudes, has a much weaker
effect, area for area, than it has on or near the Equator, where the
pull, being mostly perpendicular to the surface, must consequently have
a greater retarding action on the water while the earth moves on, thus
giving the current a westerly trend relative to the land ; or, to put it
more briefly, the difference in the gravitational pull on these two positions
causes the water to circle clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and anti-
clockwise in the Southern.

These conclusions w^ere arrived at many years ago, but how to embody
the conditions in a working model perplexed me for a long time, for I could
not divest myself of the idea that it must be done on a globe ; but at last
I began to see a way out of the difficulty.

If one takes an imaginary bird's-eye view of a hemisphere — say, for
instance, the Southern — from a great height above the South Pole, that
hemisphere will appear as a rotating disc : in fact, water will behave in the
same way on a rotating disc or tray, providing gravity is acting perpen-
dicularly to its surface, and this is easily accomplished by having the tray
to rotate on a vertical axis, and if necessary we can give it a uniform
speed by using a controller.

So far, then, things are quite simple. All we have to do to represent
the Southern Hemisphere is to provide a shallow circular tray mounted
on a vertical shaft, with the different land -masses^ South Africa, South
America, Australia, Antarctica, and a few of the larger islands — modelled
in wood, placed in the tray and fastened in their relative positions and
almost submerged in water, and then to rotate the tray at a uniform speed.
But by doing this we are confronted by another difficulty, for if we give
the tray a uniform speed how are we to give the water the very necessary
retardation without in any way interfering with its free movement ?

To overcome this difficulty, instead of giving the tray a uniform move-
ment for a long period, I gave it an accelerating movement for a short
period by means of a falling weight just sufficient to put it in motion.
I wish the point to be thoroughly" understood, that accelerating the land

266 Ti-ansactions.

is equivalent to retarding the water. By this means I obtained the
necessary retardation of the water in relation to the land without giving it
a bias in any direction with the exception of that impressed upon it by
the rotation of the land around it. The currents can be observed from
the moment the tray begins to move until the cord is unwound, Vv'hich is
about two minutes and a quarter, by which time the tray is beginning to
move too fast to observe them, and the water is by centrifugal action
beginning to bank up against the wall representing the Equator ; "but there
is ample time to observe that a system of currents is set up generally
similar to the existing currents of the Southern Hemisphere.

There is one exception, which I think can be satisfactorily accounted
for — the one marked on the maps as the " Caj^e Horn current," flowing
eastward, due, it seems to me, to the fact of the South Atlantic equatorial
current impinging on that portion of the coast north of Cape San Koque.
This coast-line, running obliquely across the Equator, diverts a great portion
of this current towards the Gulf of Mexico, thereby strengthening the Gulf
Stream at the expense of the southerly current along the east side of
South America, and so allowing part of the current in the South Pacific
Ocean to overpoAver it and flow eastward by Cape Horn. The water in
the model, however, being necessarily confined by a wall representing the
Equator, does not allow any of the current generated in the South Atlantic
to escape northward, and so, flowing with its full strength down the east
coast of South America, overpowers the one flowing eastward by Cape
Horn, thereby causing this current to flow westward.

The wall representing the Equator, and the shallowness of the water,
is a hindrance to the model, for the undue friction gives the tray a tendency
to drag the water with it. It nevertheless shows the currents quite strongly.
The diminutiveness of the model prevents it showing the smaller currents,
which no doubt are mostly in-draughts caused by the larger.

On finding the Southern Hemisphere so satisfactory I modelled the
principal land-masses of the Northern Hemisphere in the same way, and
on giving the tray an anti-clockwise motion the results were equally satis-
factory, with the exception of the Gulf Stream, which shows slightly
weaker through not receiving so much of the South Atlantic equatorial
current as it does in nature.

Specification of the Working Model. (Plate XXII.)

The model consists of a galvanized-iron tray 5 ft. in diameter and 5 in.
deep. The perpendicular wall representing the Equator has a wire edge
to stiffen it. In the centre of the tray a hole 2 in. in diameter is cut and a
tube 5 in. long is soldered in ; this is done so as to allow of a 2 in. shaft
passing through without danger of leakage.

The tray is supported by a wooden table of the same diameter firmly
bolted to the shaft at about 40 in. from the floor, so as to be at a comfort-
able height for observation. The shaft is 4 ft. long, and runs on ball
bearings top and bottom. About half-way from the table to the floor a
stud is screwed in the shaft, to which is fastened the cord ; the cord is then
carried over a pulley, and a weight of about 3| lb. attached thereto, the
weight having a fall of about 7 ft.

The land-masses are built up of three thicknesses of | in. board, the
bottom layer being splayed off, so as to be more in keeping with the shores.
These are fastened to a false bottom in their relative positions with regard
to latitude and longitude, placed in the tray, and almost submerged by

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L[.

Platk XXII.

o

03

t3

o

fct

o

-a
H

Face p. -266.1

BuRRELL. — Edrfh-rotation and Ocean Currents. 267

water, on which is sprinkled some fine sawdust in order to show up the
currents more distinctly.

The cord is wound around the shaft so as to give a clockwise motion
to the tray, this being the direction of the earth's rotation when viewed
from the South Pole. This is, of course, for a model of the Southern
Hemisphere, for the Northern the cord being wound the opposite way
so as to give an anti-clockwise rotation. The weight is then attached
to the cord, whereupon the tray slowly begins to move, and, while it is
slowly accelerating, all the phenomena of the main oceanic currents in
the Southern Hemisphere can be observed in miniature.

Art. XXVIII. — Soyne Maori Fish-hooks from Ota{/o.

By H. D. Skinner.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 10th December, 1918 ; received by Editor, 27th
December, 1918 ; issued separately. Kith July, 1919.]

Plate XXIII.

Students of the material culture of the Maoris have long been familiar with
the great collections of stone and bone objects obtained from the beaches
of Otago. The beaches between Blueskin Bay and Hooper's Inlet, which
are not more than nine miles apart in a direct line, have contributed by far
the greater part of these collections, though Shag Point and Waikouaiti
to the north, and the beaches and islands of Foveaux Strait to the south,
have also yielded a share. At the beginning of the last century Otago
Peninsula and the coast immediately to the north-west of it were very
thickly populated. Indeed, one of the earliest European accounts of this
district speaks of " the town of Otago " as being the largest Maori village in
New Zealand. But early in the century the South Island was swept by an
epidemic which left only a few hundred native inhabitants south of Cook
Strait. The coast of Otago had long been frequented by sealers and whalers,
and when regular settlement on a large scale began the remnants of the
Maori tribes were rapidly Europeanized. For this reason very little detailed
information relating to material culture in the south has been preserved,
and conjecture is the sole guide in assigning uses to many of the articles
in public and private collections. There is no difficulty in diagnosing a
large section of the bone objects as the points of composite fish-hooks,
the wooden shanks and flax bindings of which have long since decayed
away. But, taken as a whole, tliese bone points, barbed and unbarbed,
differ so much from those used in the North Island that students can
only conjecture the types of hook to which they originally belonged. No
information can be given by the Maoris themselves.

For these reasons the small group of hooks shown in the plate, several
of which have lost nothing more than the cord attaching them to the rod
or line or spread, is of unusual interest. They formed a part of the large
collection of ethnographic material recently presented to the Otago Uni-
versity Museum by Mr. A. Moritzson. Unfortunately, they liave no history.
When first received they were in a small box together with a number of
bone objects of types usually found on Otago beaches, and it was assumed
that all had been found in some cave, forming perhaps the complete outfit
of some neolithic fisherman. A closer examination showed that while

268 Transactions.

nearly all the loose bone objects had been dug from sand discoloured by
charcoal, which still adhered, all but three of the hooks (Plate XXIII,
figs. 4, 5, 6) had blue estuary-mud still adhering, and were stained the same
deep brown as is timber waterlogged in estuaries and harbours. The flax
cord also showed signs of estuary-mud. On the back of one of the hooks
(Plate XXIII, fig. 7) was a fragment of plaited flax, the plait being that
commonly used by the Maoris in making kits. A close examination yields
evidence that they were found together in estuary-mud, and that some
former European owner has carefully scrubbed three of them (Plate XXIII,
figs. 4, 5, 6) to which neither mud nor sand of any kind remains adhering.

When the collection was received the serrated bone point of Xo. 5
was inserted in the shank as shown, but, as it was not secured with small
wooden wedges like the points of Nos. 7, 8, 9, it may possibly have
been discovered elsewhere and inserted by the owner who scrubbed the
three hooks already mentioned. This may also have been the case with
the bone points of Nos. 2 and 6, but a careful examination of each will,
I think, convince any one that points and shanks all actually " belong."

Several pieces of evidence indicate that the estuary in which the hooks
were found was probably in the neighbourhood of Dunedin. In the Otago
University Museum collection is a wooden shank from a cave near Otago
Heads almost identical with that of Xo. 5, but lacking the bone j^oint.
This type of shank is not known to occur elsewhere in New Zealand. If
the bone point be accepted as evidence it is confirmatory, for it belongs to
a type common in Otago but not recorded elsewhere. Much stronger is
the evidence of hooks Nos. 7, 8, 9, for hooks of identical shape but having
a nail in place of a bone point are still used in barracouta-fishing by
European fishermen on the Otago coast. The timber now used for the
shank is red-cedar, the colour attracting the fish without any need of bait.
Frank Bullen has left an interesting account of the Maori method of using
this tvpe of hook as practised by the Maoris at Port William, Stewart Island,
in the " seventies " : " The Maoris have quite an original way of catching
barracouta. They prepare a piece of rimu (red-pine) about three inches
long by an inch broad and a quarter of an inch thick. Through one end of
this they drive an inch nail bent upwards, and filed to a sharp point. The
other end is fastened to about a fathom of stout fishing-line, which is in
turn secured to the end of a stout five-foot pole. Seated in a boat with
sail set, they slip along until a school of barracouta is happened upon. Then
the peak of the sail is dropped, so as to deaden the boat's way, while the
fishermen ply their poles with a sidelong sweep that threshes the bit of
shining red through the water, making it irresistibly attractive to a struggling
horde of ravenous fish. One by one, as swiftly as the rod can be wielded,
the lithe forms drop off the barbless hook into the boat, till the vigorous
arm can no longer respond to the will of the fisherman, or the vessel will
hold no more.'"*

The large hook (Plate XXIII, fig. 2) is made of manuka wood, and was
probably used in shark-fishing. At the bottom of the curve, on the outer
side, is a small knob which appears to have been carved to represent a
human face. This type of hook, to which Nos. 3 and 4 also belong, is
common to the whole of New Zealand. The size of the remaining hook,
No. 1, indicates that it was used for catching smaller kinds of fish.

* The Cruise of the '" Cachalot,'" Chapter xxv. For this reference I have to thank
Dr. W. N. Benson.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate XXIII.

Maori fisli-hook.s from Otago. (The scale is in inches.

Fate p. 268.1

Speight. — The Older Graveh of Xorth Canterhunj.

269

Aet. XXIX. — The Older Gravels of North Canterbury.
Bv R. Speight, M.Sc, F.G.S., Curator, Cauterbury Museum.

{Read before the New Zealand Institute, at Chrislchurch, 4th-Sth Fehruarii, 1919 ;
received by Editor, 24th February, 1919 ; issued separately, 16th July, 1919.]

Beds, and Relation to the

Page
260
2G9
270
270
27:5
274
274
277
278
278
279

280
281

Content.?.

Introductory

General Description of the District where the Beds are best developed

Description of Typical Localities

Grey River, East Branch

Grey River, West Branch

Okuku River and Mairaki Downs

Kowai River, North Branch

Kowai River, South Branch

Fox's Creek . .

Lower VVaipara Gorge

Other Canterburj' Locahties
General Conclusions as to the Origin and Age of the

Gravels of the Canterbury Plains
Bibliography

Introductory.

Widely distributed along the base of the Southern Alps lies a series of
unfossiliferous sedimentary beds, consisting for the most j^art of well-
stratified gravels, sands, and clays, with occasional lignite, whose position
has hitherto been somewhat doubtful. Haast (1879, p. 316, and map,
J). 370) included them in his Pareora formation, and mentioned the occur-
rence of lignite-beds (p. 318) in the " Moeraki " Downs, at the mouth of
the Waipara River, and in the Broken River basin, but hardly mentions the
localitv where they attain their maximum development — viz., the Mount
Grey Downs and the vicinity of the two branches of the Kowai River.
Hutton (1885, p. 211) considered them as equivalent to the Wanganui
system of the North Island, but remarked that they were difficult to dis-
tinguish from the upper gravels of the Pareora system. Park (1910, p. 252)
considered them older fluvio-glacial drifts. Thomson (1917, p. 411) refers to
them more fully, but is extremely doubtful whether they shall be assigned
to his Notocene or Notopleistocene set of deposits.

Owing to the practical absence of fossils it is difficult to determine their
position accurately, but they nevertheless represent an interesting series,
and the following accoimt is intended to bring out their chief features. In
addition to the difficulty noted by Hutton, there is the additional one that
in their lithological content as well as to some extent the conditions under
which they were laid down they resemble the beds that overlie them, and
this makes it at times impossible to separate them from subsequent gravel
and sandv beds.

General Description op the District where the Beds are best

developed.

The chief area where they are developed lies to the south-east and south
of Mount Grey, between the Waipara and Okuku Rivers, but they attain
their greatest development in the basins of the Southern Kowai and the
Grey Rivers. Important outliers also occur to the west of the Okuku, on

270 Transactions.

the lower slopes of Mount Thomas, and south of the Ashley River, where
they form the Mairaki Downs (= Moeraki Downs of Haast). The beds form
a kind of frontal apron to the higher greywacke hills, such as Moimt Grey
and Mount Karetu ; but still they rise in places to well over 1,000 ft. above
sea-level. The downs country has been dissected to some extent, and on
the front facing south-east, consequent streams have cut deep narrow
channels, with high precipitous banks, whereas in the north-eastern portion
the tributaries forming the Northern Kowai tend to develop valleys along
the strike. The same is also true of the east branch of the Grey. The
character of the drainage points to recent and rapid uplift, perhaps in agree-
ment with that of which there is distinct evidence on the coast farther north
(McKay, 1877, p. 177 ; Hutton, 1877, p. 55 ; Speight, 1918, p. 99). On the
sides of the steep banks, especially those running with the dip, numerous
good sections are exposed ; and it will be best at this stage to give a more
detailed description of typical sections, preferably those illustrating the
relationship betw^een the underlying Tertiary beds and the overlying gravels.
Although the beds are typically developed in the basin of the Kowai River,
and I have selected the uame of that locality as the one most appropriate
to designate the series, yet the most instructive sections are to be seen in
the basin of the Grey River, and these will therefore be taken first.

Descriptions op Typical Localities.
Grey River, East Branch.

The eastern or chief branch of the Grey River rises in the country between
Mounts Grey and Karetu, flows south therefrom in a deep wooded gorge, and
then gradually turns to the south-west and follows along the north-western
edge of the Mount Grey Downs till it enters on the plains and joins the Okuku
River in the neighbourhood of White Rock Station. The first part of its
course has been cut in greywacke, but on leaving the higher country it crosses
the marginal fringe of Tertiary sedimentaries at an angle of about 45° with
their strike, so that when the stream runs in the direction of the dip the
cross-section of its channel is narrow and trench-like, but when it runs along
the strike the valley opens out somewhat, with dip slopes bordering the
stream on its north-western side and steep scarp slopes on its south-eastern
side. The latter are in places very bold and precipitous, and show clear-cut
sections. Especially is this the case at the Horseshoe Cliff, about a mile
below the gorge, where the north-western slope of the downs has been scored
by a deep washout, and the strata are clearly exposed for 500 ft.

In the lower part of the river-gorge there is a most interesting occurrence
of the lower members of the Cretaceo-Tertiary series, analogous to Ihat seen
in the Waipara and Weka Pass sections. These beds when followed along
the strike run in the direction of the greywacke mass of Mount Grey ; and
unless they turn round on approaching it, as they do on the north-east slope
of the mountain, the junction between the two sets of beds will in all pro-
bability be a fault contact. To the west of the gorge, however, the junction
between the two sets of beds is a normal unconformity.

The following is a description of the beds here exposed, the sequence
being in ascending order : —

1. Greyish sands and sandy shales, glauconitic. concretionary in places,
and stained with sulphur ; succeeded by light-coloured argil-
laceous and slightly glauconitic sands — all striking north-east and
dipping south-east at 45°.

Speight. — The Older Gravds of Norfh Canferhur

•//•

271

272 Transactions.

2. Greenish glauconitic sand passing up into glauconitic limestone, the

glauconitic material being disposed in irregular patches and
lenses, giving the rock a somewhat streaky appearance ; it is
also full of worm-borings filled with glauconitic material. This
passes up into

3. Amuri limestone, 25 ft. thick, with less glauconite than 2. The passage

beds between this and the lower bed consist of fragments of Amuri
limestone in a greensand matrix, the limestone finally taking on
the facies of the typical Amuri stone, being white and jointed into
quadrangular blocks. The strike is as before, but the dip is less,
being about 30°.

4. Glauconitic limestone, 20 ft. thick, comparable w^ith the Weka Pass

stone as it approaches a shore-line (Speight and Wild, 1918, p. 77),
but passing up into a more sandy facies.

5. Marl, slightly sandy, with concretionary layers and rounded con-

cretions. This is the stratigraphical equivalent of the " grey
marl " in the Weka Pass district. It has the same strike and dip
as the limestone, and its thickness is about 70 ft.

Thus far the sequence is quite clear and conformable, but for a time the
exposures are obscured and the relations to the underlying beds are not plain.

Just below the gorge there is a well-marked bed, striking north-north-east,
with slightly flatter dip than the limestone, and containing numerous speci-
mens of Ostrea ingens. Farther down-stream, but higher in the series, is a
sandy conglomerate followed by sands with broken shells. These pass up
into sands with a layer of oyster and other shell fragments, and then follow
the beds of the Kowai series.

These are first exposed at the mouth of the gorge, just above the site
of the old sawmill. They consist of sands and sandy gravels containing
shell-fragments and showing intraformational unconformities, but no clear
evidence, given by sections, of an unconformity between the Kowai series
and the lower Tertiaries. Almost everywhere in the case of gravels resting
on sands or other finer detrital beds the upper surface of the latter has
suffered some erosion, but in no case in this branch of the Grey does this,
in my opinion, amount to sufficient to be considered a major unconformity.

On the next bluff down-stream, and higher in the sequence, the beds
exposed consist of greenish-grey sands (weathering light-brown) and sandy
gravels, with sandy carbonaceous shales and impure lignite. These are
capped unconformably by terrace-gravels belonging to the early history of
the Grey River. This sequence is repeated on the next bluff, but the
gravel beds of the Kowai series become more important, one very heavy
band of gravel near the top of the cliff being divided into two parts by a
layer of carbonaceous shale. In the bed of the river, at the base of this
cliff, is a section which shows an unconformable junction between a greenish
sand and an overlying bed of gravel. After a careful consideration of the
circumstances of this case I have come to the conclusion that it must be
considered only as an intraformational unconformity, due to the erosion of
the bed of sand by marine currents in the interval between its deposition
and that of the succeeding layer of gravel.

These beds strike north-east, and dip south-east at an angle of 20°.

As the sections are followed down-stream their character does not change
except that the gravels become increasingly important, a feature that is
well exemplified at the Horseshoe Cliff, on the face of which gravels greatly
predominate, some layers being from .50 ft. to 70 ft. in thickness. Well-
defined sandy layers also occur. The regular stratification of the beds

Speight. — The Older Gravels of North Caiitcrhvry. 273

towards the base of the cliff points to their having been deposited in
shallow water in close proximity to a shore-line, and not on a land-surface ;
but at the higher levels the stratification becomes more indistinct and the
pebbles become coarser and more subangular in shape, so it is almost certain
that the closing beds of the series were laid down on a land-surface. The
presence of lignite in the lower beds clearly indicates estuarine or deltaic
conditions.

It should be noted that on the high banks of the Grey River there is
a still more recent series of gravels belonging to the history of the stream.
They are similar in lithological features to the gravels of the Kowai series,
but they are neither so well stratified nor so well cemented. They are
undoubtedly river and not sea deposits. Where contacts can be seen they
are easily differentiated, but elsewhere, especially on the lower slopes of the
downs, it is difficult to separate them from the upper members of the lower
set of beds, which were also laid down on a land-surface.

Grey River, West Branch.

The general stratigraphy of the beds in the basin of the western branch
of the Grey River is similar to that in the eastern. The following is a
general description of the strata exposed above the greywacke as disclosed
on the sides of the gorge of the stream : —

1. Sands and greensands.

2. Limestone, full of bryozoan remains, but only a few feet thick in the

gorge of the stream, thickening, however, to the east and to the
west. There is a marked difference in the features of this lime-
stone as compared with that in the eastern branch, and as they
are in apparent continuity it might be assumed that the stone
in the western branch represents a shallower- water facies. I am
by no means certain that this is the true explanation, and the
question of the identity as regards their stratigraphical position
must be reserved for further investigation.

3. Marls, greenish in colour, with rounded concretions and concretionary

bands, passing up into greyish sands with fragmentary fossil

shells.
In the river these beds strike E. 25° S. and dip south at an angle of 30°,
but they have suffered some deformation, and the strike changes to north-
east on the ridge between the two branches of the Grey, and also as the
beds are traced round to White Rock and the Okuku River. The upper
surface of the sands was distinctly eroded before the next bed was laid
down. This consists of a heavy band of cemented gravel. The following
beds are then encountered, in ascending order : —

4. Gravel bed just referred to.

5. Sandy clays and gravels.

6. Sandy clay and carbonaceous shale, repeatedly alternating. One bed

of shale is from 12 in. to 18 in. thick.

7. Sandy gravel, well cemented with iron oxide.

8. Greenish-grey sands, sandy shales, and gravels, rapidly alternating,

totalling over 200 ft. in thickness, the strike gradually becoming
east-north-east, and the dip flattening out from 30° to 10°.

9. Gravels, sandy and with occasional thin layers of sandy clay, lying

flat or with slight dip to the south-east. These are at least .500 ft.
thick, and are well exposed on the ridge between the western
Grey and the stream near the White Rock Station.

274 Transactions.

The section in this river thus shows that there is a distinct series in which
gravels are the dominant beds lying unconformably on marine Tertiaries.
It should be noted that in the western branch there are no gravel beds
below the unconformity. Either they have never been deposited or they
have been removed by erosion. There is a strong suggestion from the
eastern branch that gravel beds are present among the higher members of
the underlying marine series, so that their presence cannot be taken as
decided evidence that beds containing gravels in this locality necessarily
lielong to the Kowai series.

Ohuku River and Mairahi Downs.

Similar gravels occur on the banks of the Okuku, especially on the
western side, where they form low hills fringing the base of Mount Thomas,
and stretching westward towards the Garry River and Glentui. Towards
the Ashley they are masked by more-recent gravels, but they reappear on
the south bank of the river, forming the Mairaki Downs. The strata here
consist of thick sandy gravels, sandy clays, and occasional la5'ers of carbon-
aceous shale. Opposite the mouth of the Garry they strike north-east
and dip north-west at an angle of 20°, forming the south-eastern wing
of a syncline which is developed farther west, while farther east, towards
Rangiora, the structure is anticlinal. The country directly between the
Mairaki and Mount Grey Downs is probably a syncline, but the surface is
completely masked by recent gravels and clays belonging to the Ashley
and Okuku Rivers and to the lower course of the Grey and Makerikeri
Rivers, the latter draining a considerable area on the south-western flank
of the Mount Grey Downs.

Kowai River, North Branch.

An excellent idea of the structure and general features of the northern
part of the downs area can be obtained by examination of the high banks
of the North Kow^ai, and especially of a tributary which rises in Mount Brown
itself and flows in a south-easterly direction across the strike of the beds,
thus exposing all the members of the series present in this locality. The
following is a general description of the beds encountered, starting with the
Mount Brown beds and following up to the highest members of the series : —

At the contact with the upper members of the Mount Brown series the
latter consist of sands, and marine gravels with shells, striking north-east
and dipping south-east at an angle of 10°. The Mount Brown beds are here
capped unconformably with sandy gravels containing rounded and sub-
angular greywacke pebbles, and belonging in all probability to the high-level
terrace-gravels of the present Kowai River. Lower down sands, sandy clays,
and sandy gravels dipping south-east at very low angles are exposed on the
banks of the stream and in the deep gullies on the northern side. There is
certainly a disagreement in dip between these beds and the underlying Mount
Brown beds, suggesting an unconformity, but nowhere could I see an actual
contact in order to determine this point precisely. The slight escarpment
of the downs which faces Mount Brown at this point is determined by the
presence of the gravel beds which occur at this horizon. It is noteworthy
that there is an entire absence of the gravel beds with broken-shell layers
which cover the Mount Brown beds in the vicinity of Weka Pass, a point
which increases the probability that the beds forming the downs rest on the
Mount Brown beds unconformably.

Speight. — The Older Gravels of North Canterhurij. 275

Farther down-stream the beds lie almost flat, with an east-south-east strike
and a dip to the north-north-east at very low angles (less than 5°). On a high
bluff a series of well-stratified sands and sandy gravels is exposed. Near
the base of the cliff, under a sandy bed cemented in its lower part with iron
oxide, lies a narrow band of sandy carbonaceous shale, 6 in. to 8 in. thick,
containing pieces of lignified wood, and passing down into sandy clay with
interstratified irregular lenses of lignite. Under these lie sands and sandy
gravels, and then bluish-green and brown sands. A little below this the
strike swings round to north-north-east, with an easterly dip, and in a narrow
gidly on the south side of the stream an interesting section is exposed. Here
both the bluish-green sands and the sandy gravels have been eroded, and
on the eroded surface have been deposited sands and sandy gravels contain-
ing fragments of the lower beds. A similar occurrence is to be observed on
the face of a cliff' in the main stream, the lower beds dipping 10° and the
upper lying flat across them. A thin layer of broken-shell fragments was
observed high up on the face of the cliff in an inaccessible position.

Higher in the series are rapidly alternating sands and fine sandy gravels,
in layers down to 1 in. in thickness, and these are succeeded bv sands, sandy-
gravel beds, and bluish-grey and brown sands, the former with broken-shell
layers. In the gravels are numerous fragments of limestone, which must have
been derived from a surface of the Amuri limestone exposed to decided erosion.
The fragments are generally less than 2 in. in length, but are sometimes
longer, and are usually flattened like beach shingle. There is no doubt as
to the interstratification of these beds in the series under consideration, as
the same feature was observed in a deep gully to the north of the stream in
its proper stratigraphical position. The presence of these fragments is posi-
tive proof of the presence of an unconformity between these beds and the
Amuri limestone, and supports the stratigraphical evidence from the Grey
River. In the bluish-green sands there are occasional shell-fragments.

For some distance below this spot there are no clear sections, but sand is
probably the major constituent of the beds. At the junction with the Kowai
River, however, there are high cliff's on the northern side, where the strata
are clearly visible for half a mile. The lowest beds exposed in this locality
are sands with interstratified gravels, in which limestone-fragments form a
most important constituent. The beds with the limestone-fragments are at
least 50 ft. thick, and may be thicker. Higher up the limestone constituent
gets less and less, and the pebbles are entirely of greywacke. No other
included material, such as fragments of Mount Brown limestone, was noted
at this spot, which might indicate the date of the break between the Amuri
limestone beds and those under consideration. It is possible that these
gravel beds are unconformable to the greenish marine sands, since for some
distance no exposures are visible which enable their relations to be precisely
determined, and there is evidence from other parts of the area that these
upper gravels are unconformable to greenish sands — e.g., in the Grey River
(see p. 272) and also in No. 2 Creek (see p. 276). These gravel beds are
fairly well stratified, with occasional beds of sandy clay and thin carbonaceous
shales, their total thickness being about 1,000 ft., and the whole thickness
of the series from the junction of the Mount Brown beds upward being about
1,500 ft., though this may include two series — viz., the Motunau and the
Kowai series.

The course of the main stream above its junction with the tributary follows
almost along the strike of the beds, so that the structure is not so well
displayed. The beds exposed consist of marine sands, which are remarkablv

276 Transactions.

current-bedded, and loose and cemented sandy gravels with numerous
fossils similar to the beds exposed in the Lower Waipara Gorge. The highest
bed of this series exposed in the valley of the stream consists of greenish
sandv clay, which weathers a light brown, and contains fossil shells. Its
upper surface has been distinctly eroded, and on it rests a heavy layer of
cemented gravel, and following this are sandy clays and gravel beds dipping
south-east at angles of 10°. These beds pass upward into the gravel beds
exposed on the cliffs of the river below the junction with the tributarv. In
the tributary mentioned above I could find no indication of an eroded surface
analogous to that in the main stream, and so it may be an unconformity
of local character similar to those recorded elsewhere, but it may indicate a
decided unconformity between the Motunau and the Kowai series.

It is owing to the typical development of these gravels and the beds
associated with them in the Kowai River, not only in this locality but in the
south branch as well, that I have called them the Kowai series. It is
possible, however, that the lower part of this group of beds may be equivalent
to the upper part of the Motunau series, and subsequent investigation may
show the term to be unnecessary.

In No. 2 Creek, a southern tributary of the North Kowai, there is a very
important section. Just below the high bluff on the north side, about four
miles above the junction, the stream has exposed the following beds : —

1. Greenish sands, becoming more clayey in the upper portions and passing

up into sandy shale.

2. Lignite, very impure, 10 in. thick, striking east-north-east and dipping

north-north-west at 5°.

3. Argillaceous sands, decidedly clayey above the coal but becoming more

sandy and greenish in colour higher up. The thickness exposed is
about 6 ft., but it is eroded, and sandy gravels rest on it uncon-
formably. An eroded surface appears just below this in the bed
of the stream, with an angular mass of green sandy clay embedded
in the gravel.

In close proximity to the erosion surface there is another section showing
the same features, but with only 3 ft. of bed 3 interposed between the coal
and the gravels.

Just over the dividing-ridge between this and the South Kowai River
there are high cliffs, facing south, composed of similar beds, with gravels more
strongly developed in the higher levels, and dipping south at angles about 5°.
Thus an anticlinal axis runs east-north-east along the ridge in close proximity
to the road which runs along the crest.

Just at the point where the stream turns after leaving the steeper slopes
of Mount Grey, and assumes a north-easterly course, coal and associated
beds are exposed in its actual channel and in the bank of a small gully on
the southern side. They consist of —

1. Greenish sands, passing up into sandy clays.

2. Impure lignite.

3. Clai/s succeeded by greenish sandy clays.

4. Gravels, mixed with sand, cemented with iron oxide.

5. Greenish sandy clays.

6. Cemented gravels.

These beds strike north-east, and dip north-west at an angle of 5°.

When followed up-stream there is an alternation of sands and gravels,
apparently conformable to the beds just enumerated, exposed in the slips

Speight. — The Older Gravels of Nerrth Canftrbury. 211

on the river-banks ; but the dip becomes steeper till, on the face of a high
bluff below the bush, it reaches 20°. Here are alternating sandy clays and
gravels, the former greenish-yellow in colour, which are capped unconform-
ably by somewhat irregular sands and gravels, lying almost horizontally
across the denuded edges of the lower set. The upper series evidently
forms the distinct ridge which leads down-stream past the point where the
undoubted unconformity described above was observed.

Similar beds are observed in places on the banks of the stream higher up,
but the covering of bush and soil is too complete to attempt a correlation
with those lower down. Owing to this covering it is likewise impossible to
say whether the junction between the greywackes of Mount Grey is a simple
unconformity or a fault contact.

Kowai River, South Branch.

The high banks of this river rise in places to a height of 500 ft. above
its bed, frequently with precipitous faces, and thus excellent sections are
exposed. The strata are also folded into gentle anticlines and synclihes,
so that in the cores of the former the lower beds are exposed. They consist
of the following in ascending order : —

1. Sands with concretionary layers, with broken-shell beds in the lower

part, at least 80 ft. thick.

2. Green sandy clays and greivel beds, the latter finer in grain and thicker

in the lower part, and cemented with iron oxide.

3. At higher levels there are rapidly alternating gravel and sandy

beds, the former composed of subangular pebbles, which point to
deposit either on a land-surface or on a shore-line in close
proximity to the source of supply. No limestone pebbles were
seen in these beds. In places they exhibit intraformational uncon-
formities, such as one would expect when rapid changes in the
conditions of deposit take place, especially when the change is
from a sand to a gravel, and vice versa. The gravel beds fre-
quentlv form steep cliffs ; and their hard bands determine the
dividing-ridges between the tributary streams running into the
main river, especially on the south side, and they also determine
an important reach of the river itself, although its direction is
primarilv across the strike, and therefore of consequent character.
A speciallv good section is to be seen where the river makes a right-
angle turn, and changes from the subsequent to the consequent direction.
The beds are here bent up into a rather sharp anticline with a north-east
strike and a dip to the north-west at an angle of 50°. On the seaward side
of the anticlinal axis the dip is much less, the angle being about 10°, the
succession being similar. But farther down-stream the strike swings round
till it is north-north-east, then north-north-west, and finally north-west,
following for a time the direction of the main river. This allows the lower
members of the series to be exposed again in the bed and banks of the river.
They consist here of sands and sandy clays, greenish-blue in colour and
weathering brown, containing fossils, some of the sands with concretionary
layers and associated with thin gravel beds. The shells consist of Siphonedia,^
Glycymeris, and Ostrea, but in a fragmentary condition.

Farther down-stream the greenish-blue beds are still exposed, but the
strike gradually becomes north-east with a dip to the south-east, and
gravel beds form the greater part of the high bluffs which face the river
on the north above the Mount Grev Station.

278 Transactions.

Opposite the right-angle turn of the river referred to above, and imme-
diately to the west of the axis of the anticline, there is distinct evidence
of the presence of an unconformity between the gravels just referred to
and a higher series. The beds here consist of sands and sandy gravels
which are lithologically indistinguishable from the higher members of the
lower series. On a bluff facing the river the beds in contact with the
gravels of the lower series are exposed lying across their denuded edges at
low angles, and immediately to the north-west they show a reversal of dip
and are inclined to the south-east at angles of from 5° to 7°. This dip is
in agreement with that which can be observed in sections in the upper
basin of the Southern Kowai, and notably to the south of the anticline
which runs to the south-east of No. 2 Creek and parallel with it. Thus
there is evidence of an unconformity in the Southern Kowai in close
proximity to that in the No. 2 Creek in the drainage area of the Northern
Kowai.

It will be noted that the lowest members of the series present in the
two branches of the Kowai consist of sandy beds with marine fossils,
whereas these do not appear with certainty in the Grey River. The gravel
beds are, however, equally developed in each area. This difference is perhaj)s
of no special stratigraphical importance, since the gravel beds in both areas
are undoubtedly marine, and in the Grey area conditions may not have
been favourable for the preservation of fossil remains. As far as I can
see at present, there is no evidence of a major unconformity between the
gravel beds and the lower marine beds, although minor, intraformational
unconformities undoubtedly exist. There is, however, distinct evidence
of a discordance at a higher level in the Kowai series between beds of
similar lithological character both above and below the unconformity,
but not such a discordance as necessitates the higher beds being placed
in another distinct series. The whole area and its vicinity no doubt
experienced a fairly rapid elevation, probably of a differential character, so
that erosion went on in one part of the area while deposition was continuous
in an adjacent part. If subsequent deposition over the denuded area then
ensued this special stratigrai^hical feature can be satisfactorily explained.

Fox's Creek.

In Fox's Creek, the next stream south of the Kowai, there is an excellent
section of the gravels forming the great mass of the downs area. This
stream rises in the centre of the area and flows east, being bounded on the
north for the middle part of its course by precipitous banks, in places up
to 500 ft. in heiglit above the stream. The beds here exposed consist of
sandy gravels, sands, and sandy clays, with occasional thin, discontinuous
layers of sandy carbonaceous shale. The sands are frequently blue-green in
colour, and without fossils as far as I could see. In this part of the course
of the stream the beds lie flat, with a slight dip to the north, but on the
eastern margin of the downs the dip increases to 10° and its direction
becomes south-east. In the adjacent valleys to tlie north and south there
are similar beds with similar dip.

Lower Waipara Gorge.

Just where the river crosses the western end of the Limestone Range,
beds of the Motunau series are exposed, consisting of marine sands, sandy
clays, and sandy gravels frequently cemented with calcareous material
and containing numerous fossil shells (Speight, 1912 and 191i). They are

Speight. — Tht Older Gravels of Norih Caiittrhury. 279

involved in anticlines and synclines, and sometimes dip at steep angles —
as hioh as 55° to 60°. They do not contain, as far as my observation goes,
any limestone-fragments such as might have been shed from the Weka Pass
or Amuri limestone beds, and this suggests that they are not unconformable
to the beds containing those limestones, a conclusion which is supported
by general stratigraphical evidence. These Motunau beds are capped
unconformably by gravels containing numerous fragments of limestone,
and from their lack of distinct stratification it may be concluded that they
are high-level terrace-gravels of more recent date. Similar gravels occur
on the downs just east of the Amberley-Waipara Railway, covering a con-
siderable extent of country, as they are occasionally exposed in the sides
of deep washouts and cap the cliffs cut by the river in making its gorge.

Along the north bank of the river below the Teviotdale Bridge there is
also a series of Motunau beds, consisting of sands, sandy clays, and gravels,
some of which are very fine and smooth and are evidently of marine origin.
These beds contain fossil shells at various levels, which point to the age
being Mio-Pliocene or Pliocene (Speight, 1914). On the south bank of
the river the beds are much obscured by slip-material and vegetation, so
that in no place is the contact clearly displayed. On the terrace near the
mouth of the river the following section is exposed : —

1. Yellowish sands, exposed at river-level and for 6 ft. upwards.

2. Sandy lignite, with well-marked woody structure and containing

crystals of gypsum in stellate and columnar groups, 4 ft. in
thickness.

3. Sandy clay (fireclay ?), with occasional pieces of bituminized wood.

4. Lignite, full of bituminized wood, 6-8 in.

5. Sand and sandy clay, with pieces of wood, 4 ft.

6. Gravel, 6 ft.

7. Sandy clay.

8. Gravel.

Farther up-stream the lignite-beds are exposed in similar stratigraphical
position, succeeded by yellowish clays and sandy gravels, and at one place
there is an exposure under the lignite of well-stratified and rounded marine
shingle.

These beds all strike east-south-east and dip west-south-west at very
flat angles, and it is impossible to tell on stratigraphical grounds whether
the gravels overlying the lignites are conformable or not, or whether they
belong to the Kowai series or to recent terrace-gravels. The locality
furnishes evidence of the ease with which conformity may be simulated
under certain circumstances. If level beds are planed by the sea, and no
irregularity left on their being depressed and covered with a veneer of sedi-
ments, apparent conformity may occur over considerable distances, and
especially will this be the case if the beds in contact are of a sandy or
gravelly nature. A suggestion of unconformity is given in this case by
the presence in the lowest layer of gravel of large pebbles, up to 8 in. in
diameter, and more or less subangular, indicating strong currents on a land-
surface or on a sea-bottom in close proximity to land, and that the beds
were deposited under conditions entirely dissimilar from those obtaining
when the better-rounded gravels were laid down.

Other Canterbury Localities.
There are other localities in this part of the South Island where similar
gravels occur, among which may be cited the Isolated Hills in the Culverden

280 Transactinns.

Basin ; the cliffs at Gore Bay, where well-cemented gravels are involved in
a syncline ; the western side of the Trelissick Basin, specially in the Hog's
Back Creek ; between the Pudding Stone and the North Ashburton River ;
and in South Canterbury between the Tengawai and Pareora Rivers. It is
probable, too, that the deeper gravels encountered in the bore at Chertsev
belong to this series, the indications of petroleum coming from plant-remains
which elsewhere have formed lignite.* Just below the Rakaia Gorge, where
great thickness of gravels has been exposed, there is an underlying set of beds
which are more strongly oxidized than the covering strata, and they may
perhaps be assigned to a series older than the prevailing shingle beds of the
plains. Although this criterion is perhaps an unsatisfactory one on which
to base a determination of relative age, yet it has been applied in Switzerland
in order to differentiate the gravels of the older glacial series of that region.

General Conclusions as to the Origin and Age of the Beds, and
Relation to the Gravels of the Canterbury Plains.

The materials of which these gravels are composed have been derived
almost entirely from original greywackes. No limestone was noted among
them except in the case of the beds in the North Kowai. Occasional pebbles
of basalt also occur, such as might have been derived from areas where such
rocks are known to exist. A siliceous sandstone, white in colour and forming
rounded masses, which could not be traced to its source, also occurs freelv
in the gravels of the Mount Grey district. These are perhaps masses of sand-
stone which have been loosely cemented by processes analogous to those
which have formed the sarsen stones, or " Chinamen," as they are called by
miners, of the schist areas of Central Otago.

The subangular nature of the pebbles shows that the greywacke land
must have been in close proximity to the area of deposit. The absence of
large pebbles suggests that it was of moderate relief, though it might have
been the outlying portion of a more elevated tract. The gravels contain,
however, no suggestion of a glacial or fluvio-glacial origin ; they are just
such gravels as might have been brought down by the present Ashley or
Waipara Rivers, which have no connection with glaciers. The origin of
the limestone constituent can be traced exactly, as exposures of limestone
of similar nature occur within a short distance of the area where they have
been deposited ; but these limestone pebbles occur low down in the series and
disappear at higher levels, so that the uppermost beds must have been derived
from areas where limestone does not exist. Although the lower members of
the series are undoubtedly marine, the upper members were in all probability
deposited under estuarine conditions or actually on a land-surface.

The determination of the age of the Kowai series is a matter of some
difficulty. The unconformity in the Grey River shows that it is certainly
post-Miocene, and in the Lower Waipara Gorge beds occur under the gravels
with a fossil content which shows them to be upper Pliocene (Speight, 1914,
p. 300) — that is, beds which form the upper part of the Motunau series.
Therefore we may reasonably infer that the Kowai series is either upper
Pliocene, if no unconformity exists between two sets of beds, or Pleistocene,
if an unconformity is demonstrable. The Pliocene beds of the lower Waipara
are perhaps the uppermost beds of a conformable Cretaceo-Tertiary series.

* Pieces of carbonized bark have recently been obtained from a depth of 1,900 ft.
in this bore.

Speight. — The Older Gravels of North Canterhunj. 281

Therefore if an unconformity can be proved between the Kowai series and
an}" member of the lower series it will be unconformable to all. As the pre-
sence of included fragments of limestone in the gravel beds of the Kowai
demonstrates the existence of a clear unconformity between the gravels and
the limestones, and the undoubted erosion-surface in the Grey River demon-
strates the presence of one at a higher level still, we may therefore infer that
the gravels of the Kowai series must be of Pleistocene age. If, however, the
Cretaceo-Tertiary series is broken up eventually into subordinate unconform-
able elements, then this argument fails, and the matter will depend on the
relation of the Kowai series to the fossiliferous marine beds of the lower
Waipara and the Northern Kowai, as being the highest beds on which the
Kowai series undoubtedly rests. The relation of the two sets of beds is
somewhat obscure, though, judging from the evidence in the latter locality,
probably unconformable. Therefore all that can be definitely stated is
that the Kowai series overlies undoubted upper Pliocene beds and must be
of a later age, and is most probably Pleistocene.

This must be earlier than the gravels forming the Canterbury Plains, for
these have suffered no deformation by folding movements, whereas the
gravels of the KoAvai series are at times folded somewhat acutely. They
would therefore antedate the last period of giaciation to which the region had
been subjected.

A point which bears on the conformity of the Tertiary sequence should
be noted — viz., that in neither of the two branches of the Grey River are
the typical Mount Brown beds developed, thus suggesting an unconformity
between the Motunau series, or the Kowai series, and the Mount Brown beds
in case the absence is due to erosion, or between the Mount Brown beds and
the "grey marls " in case the overlying beds, together with the Mount Brown
beds, are part of a conformable series. As there appears to be no evidence
of unconformity between the Mount Brown beds and the " grey marls " in
the typical locality, whereas there is some evidence of an unconformity
between the Motunau series and the Mount Brown beds, it seems more likely
that the absence of the Mount Brown facies in the Grey River is due to erosion
of these beds after deposition. This, however, is a point which requires
further investigation.

Bibliography.

Haast, J. VON, 1879. Geology of Canterbury and Westland.

HtJTTON, F. W., 1877. Re2h Geol. Explor.' during 1873-74, jjp. 27-58.

1885. Sketch of the Geology of New Zealand, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 41,

pp. 191-220.
McKay, A., 1877. Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1874-76, pp. 172-84.
Park, J., 1910. The Geology of New Zealand, Whitcombe and Tombs, Christchurch.
Speight, R., 1912. A Preliminarv Account of the Lower Waipara Gorge, Trans.

N.Z. Inst., vol. 44, pp. 221-33.
1914. Additions to the List of Fossils from the Lower Waipara, Trans. N.Z.

Inst., vol. 46, p. 300.

1918. Structural and Glacial Features of the Hurunui Valley, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,

vol. 50, pp. 93-105.
Speight, R., and Wild, L. J., 1918. The Stratigraphical Relationship of the Weka

Pass Stone and the Amuri Limestone, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 65-93.
Thomson, J. A., 1917. Diastrophic and other Considerations in Classification and

Correlation, and the Existence of Minor Diastrophic Districts in the Notocene,

Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 397-413.

282 T ransactions.

Art. XXX. — Rough Ridge, Otago, and i^s SjMntered Fault-scar]).

By C. A. Cotton.

[Read before the New Zealand Institute, at Christchurch, 4th-Sth February, 1919 ; received
by Editor, 11th February, 1919 ; issued separately, 16th July, 1919.]

IXTRODUCTION.

In another publication* I have referred to Eough Kidge as one of the
upland blocks of the Central Otago system of block mountains and associ-
ated depressions. It is there described as follows : —

" Its crest is very even for many miles with a height of about 3,200 ft.
above the sea. On its north-western and north-eastern sides this block is
similar to the Raggedy-Blackstone block. Farther south, however, it is
complex and relatively wide, two broad splinters descending towards the
north-east and forming offsets on the lowland level between the north-east-
trending fault-scarp portions of the boundary -line between the Rough Ridge
block and the next depression to the east."t

The map and diagram, figs. 11 and 13 of the paper referred to, show
the relation of the Rough Ridge block to the structure and relief of the
district as a whole, and fig. 3 is a sketch of its back slope.

This block is of interest both on account of its remarkably even and
little-dissected back slope (a fossil plain) on the north-western side, and on
account of the faults en echelon bounding it on the eastern side, between
which two well-defined splinters descend from the upland to the level of
the adjacent depression (see fig. 1).

Splintered Fault-scarps.

So far as I am aware, the term " splinter " was first used in a similar
connection by Davis, who figured a " rock-splinter on the Hurricane fa\ilt "
and referred to it in these words : " The view northward showed at
a distance of ten or fifteen miles a curious oft'set in the fault whereby a
splinter of upper Aubrey at the edge of the Uinkaret bends down and
descends southward to the Shivwits level. "J

In New Zealand another splintered fault-scarp, in the Waitaki Valley,
has been described and figured. §

A splintered fault differs from a di'Stributed fault and from a branching
fault in that, while the displacement on the whole fault-system remains con-
stant throughout its length or varies constantly in one direction or the other
(as might the displacement on a single simple fault), dwindling displacement
on one line (such as AB, fig. 2) is compensated by the development parallel
to it of another line of fault (such as CD) with increasing displacement,
and this may occur more than once {EF) ; so that discontinuous faults en
echelon separating successive splinters form the complex boundary between
adjacent high- and low-lying blocks. It is as though faulting had followed
pre-existing lines of weakness — lines of least resistance — running diagon-
ally across the boimdary between the tectonic blocks.

* C A. CoTTOK, Block Mountains in New Zealand, Am. Jotirn. ScL, toI. 44,
pp. 249-93, 1917.

t Loc. cit., pp. 274-75.

j W. M. Davis, An Excursion to the Plateau Province of Utah and Arizona, Bull.
Mus. Cornp. Zool. Harvard, vol. 42, pp. 1-50 (see p. 30 and fig. 9), 1903.

§ C. A. Cotton, The Fossil Plains of North Otago, Trans. X.Z. Inst., vol. 42,
pp. 429-32 (see p. 432 and pi. xxx, fig. 2), 1917.

Cotton. — Rough Bulge and its Splintered Faidt-scari:).

283

Rough Ridge.

The back slope of Rough Ridge is probably the most perfectly preserved
inclined fossil plain in Otago. The surface, as shown in fig. 3 of the paper
referred to above, is in the stage of erosion when the overmass has been
stripped off and the ancient planed floor is undergoing dissection by nume-
rous parallel consequent streams none of which is master. While a few
feet of rock have been removed from the stripped floor since the removal
of the cover, as is shown by the presence of abundant residual tors of
schist, the form of the ancient eroded plain, now tilted with an inclination

Fig. 2. — Diagram of a splintered fault
dislocating a plane surface.

Fig. 1. — Northern end of Rough Ridge (from
maps by Department of Lands).

of 10^, is preserved almost perfectly by the existing surface of the inter-
fluves. Though these are narrow, they slope towards the numerous stream-
lines only near their edges, which are rounded off. The profiles of the
little valleys of the dissecting streams are roughly graded, though incised
to but a small depth below the general slope, this depth being, as would
be expected, greatest about the middle of the slope. Thus, if the former
presence of a cover be disregarded, the cycle of erosion for the surface is
still in the stage of youth ; and it may remain, and probably has remained,
at this stage for a long period, for the conditions are here extremely
favourable for long persistence of such pseudo-youthful topography.* In
this way only can the frequent recurrence of similar back slopes be
explained .

* C. A. Cotton, loc. cit., p. 259.

284

Transactions.

.'' ;,.,,; 1

m

i?

mm

m

Hi-

«
>

o
c

fcJD

a

o
o

I— ^

3

©

3
O

t4

CO

6

M

'i^'^/^^x:-

l.'ifMll lis s

K'

i^^M

^1

/

O .r

^ =«

hn

^

13

E

_e

^

~

&f

CE

a>

O

-3

K

-i-=

Ttl

-' V'l'.'

Cotton. — Rough Ridgt and its Splintcrtd Fuulf-scurp. 285

Though the back slope of the Eough Ridge block is remarkably uniform,
the stripped surface arches over near the crest-line, becomes horizontal, and
then slopes down towards the south-eastern side, or fiont, of the block.
Around the north-eastern end this little-dissected surface has the form of a
plunging anticline, and, close to the north-eastern end, even on the front,
the strongly warped fossil plain seems to form the slope, though farther to
the south it undoubtedly passes into a fault-scarp. The eastward-sloping
stripped surface, or fold-scarp, has an inclination of 20°, and is more deeply
and maturely dissected than the back slope. Tors survive on the interfluves.

The structuie of the schist forming the Rough Ridge block is a broad,
oi^en anticline with its axis transverse to the elongation of the block. On
the crown of this anticline, which is near the northern end of the block,
the ancient eroded surface truncating the anticlinal structure is practically
parallel with the foliation of the schist. The deformation to which the
uplift of Rough Ridge is due is here shown not only by the form of the
surface, but also by the dip of the schist foliation, which arches over the
top of the ridge accordant with the surface. Such an agreement between
the surface-slope and the dip of the foliation may occasionally be noted in
other parts of Central Otago where the schist is flat-lying ; but, on the other
hand, there are frequent changes of dip which are quite discordant with the
general slopes of the surface, and are obviously of more ancient origin. The
same is true of the broader structures of the schist — as, for example, the
broad anticline referred to above in the Rough Ridge block.

As the eastern front of Rough Ridge is followed southward the fold-
scarp is found to be replaced by a fault-scarp. Here, however, near the
base of the scarp lies a strip of the schist undermass, the north-eastern part
of which is but little above the general level of the neighbouring portion
of the Maniototo depression and is separated from the scarp by a narrow
strip of planed undermass (see fig. 4). This low, flat outcrop of schist is
named Little Rough Ridge, on account of its tor-covered surface. Followed
south-westward its surface rises — the displacement on the fault which sepa-
rates it from the main block decreasing in that direction — so that it is seen
to be a splinter with its stripped surface inclined towards the main block
(see figs. 3 and 4). This first splinter is bounded on the front, or south-
eastern side, by a fault-scarp similar to that of the main block. At the
base of this scarp is another low-lying area of schist, which rises south-
westward to form a second splinter similar to the first. At the base of the
fault-scarp of the second splinter lies a schist surface which emerges from
beneath the overmass in the Maniototo depression and rises southward to
form part of the plateau into which the Central Otago block mountains and
depressions merge when followed southward.

In the fault-angle behind the higher portion of the first splinter a rem-
nant of the cover is preserved.* A glance at figs. 3 and 4 shows that
the drainage of the depression behind the spUnter, after following what
appears to be the normal, longitudinal, consequent course in the fault-angle
for some distance, turns south-eastward and crosses the splinter in gorges.
This points to some l)ending-down of the initial surface adjacent to the
crest of the fault-scarp, for there is nothing to suggest that capture has
taken place, and the stream-courses are probably consequent throughout
their length.

* A. McKay, Reiwrt on the Older Auriferous Drifts of Central Otago, Wellington,
1897 (see map).

286

Transactions.

Art. XXXI. — Note on the Mechanical Composition of the So-called

Loess at Timaru.

By L. J. Wild, M.A , B.Sc, F.G.S., Canterbury Agricultural College.

[Read before the New Zealand Institute-, at Christchurch, 4th-8th February, 1919 ; received
by Editor, 12th February, 1919 ; issued separately, 16th July, 1919.]

The origin of the so-called loess at Timaru, and of other similar deposits
on Banks Peninsula and elsewhere in tlie South Island, is connected with
the larger problem of the formation of the Canterbiiry Plains, and with
the question of the direction of the more recent movements of the land
in that area. Haast* was of opinion that the deposit is similar in origin
to the loess of China described by Baron von Richthofen — that is to say,
it is an aeolian deposit. In this opinion he has been supported by Hard-
castle, f by Speight,"! and by Professor A. Heim§ of the University of
Zurich. Marshalljl has also declared his adhesion to Haast's view. Hutton^
always strenuously opposed this theory, maintaining the deposit to be a
marine silt laid down during a period of submergence of the plains ; and
he quotes Professor Boehm, of Freiberg, in support of his arguments.
Since analyses of the deposit as seen typically at Timan; may shed some
light on the problem I submit this note, though I "admit my contribution
of original observations is small when the importance of the question and
the time given to it by previous workers are considered.

The following results were obtained by the method of mechanical
analysis adopted by the British Agricultural Education Association (see
Journ. Agric. Science, 1906, vol. 1, p. 470). The particles are freed from
one another by treatment first with dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve
inorganic cements, then with dilute ammonia solution to dissolve organic
cements. They are then separated by sedimentation.

Table I. — Mechanical Analyses of Samples of the So-called Loess at Caroline

Bay, Timaru.

Diameter

(1)

(2)

(3)

Name of Fraction.

of Particles in

2 ft. from

20 ft. from

30 ft. from

Millimetres.

Surface.

Sm-face.

Siurface.

Coarse sand

1-0-2

0-65

0-92

0-68

Fine sand . .

0-2-0-04

29-07

40-00

27-76

Silt

0-04-0-01

34-32

35-97

37-05

Fine silt . .

0-01-0-002

25-95

15-72

24-12

Clay

Below 0-002

0-69

0-39

0-67

Organic matter

Trace

Trace

Trace

Dissolved matter and hygroscopic mois-

N.d.

N.d.

N.d.

ture

* J. VON Haast. Geology of Canterbury and Westland, Christchurch, 1879.
t J. Haedcastle, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 22, p. 406, 1890.

t R. Speight, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40, p. 33, 1908; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49,
p. 386, 1917.

§ A. Heim, Quoted by Speight, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40, p. 33, 1908.

II P. Marshall, New Zealand and Adjacent Islands, p. 31, Heidelberg, 1912.

11 F. W. HuTTON, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, jj. 465, 1905.

\\"lLD. — Mechanical Composition of So-called T.oixx at Titnaru. 287

Haast, when he set forth his theory that this deposit is of aeolian origin,
followed Eichthofen's explanation of a supposedly similar deposit in China.
The required conditions are (1) the production of waste in an impalpable
form, (2) steppe conditions for its desiccation, (3) winds to transport it,
(4) vegetation to fix it where it settles. In our case it is presumed that
the material is rock-flour produced by the Pleistocene glaciers and brought
down by rivers ; and, since it is generally agreed that the extension of the
glaciers was due to the land being at a greater elevation, it is assumed that
the coastal plains then exhibited the characters of a steppe region, so that
the silt deposited on the flood-plains of the rivers was in condition for
transportation by the wind. Under these conditions winds also must be
granted. But now comes a difficulty. According to the experiments of
Udden,* the average largest size of quartz-particles sustained in air by
strong winds is 04 mm. in diameter, and Emersont says that 70 per cent,
of loess-particles range from 0-05 mm. to 0-01 mm. in diameter, a state-
ment that is apparently based on the following analyses given by Merrill. J
It is unfortunate that I have not been able to find any records of mechanica^
analvses of the loess of China.

Table II. — Mechanical Analyses of Loess and Dust.

Manie of Fraction.

Biameter

of Particles in

Millimetres.

(1)

Upland

Loess,

Virginia,

Illinois.

(2)

River Loess,
Virginia,
Illinois.

(3)

Loess,
Nebraska.

(■1)
Dnst from

Snow,

Rockville,

Indiana.

Coarse sand
Medium sand . .
Fine sand
Verv fine sand
Silt" ..
Fine silt
Clay . .
Moisture
Organic matter

1-0-5
0-5-0-25
0-25-0-1

0-1-0-05
0-05-0-01
0-01-0-005
0-005-0-0001

0-00
0-00
0-01
7-68

61-85
9-60

15-15

0-00
0-01
0-10

24-84

60-98

2-80

6-15

0-00
0-00
0-00
23-14
54-81
2-46
9-45
5-40
4-96

0-00
0-00
0-00
0-00

69-37
5-80
9-68
3-17

11-98

Totals . .

94-29

94-88

99-22

100-00

It will be noticed that mechanical analysis by the method generally
adopted in the United States separates the material into fractions that
differ somewhat in size from those obtained by the British method.

Now, when we look at the composition of the Timaru deposit we find
that from 28 to 40 per cent, of the particles have a diameter ranging from
0-04 mm. to 0-2 mm., while there is also a certain small quantity of material
over 0-2 mm. in diameter. We have here, therefore, a very strong argu-
ment against the aeolian hypothesis.

Richthofen further stresses the importance of vegetation as a means
of accumulating the fine particles. Haast quotes him as styling the loess
beds " a graveyard of innumerable generations of grasses." In the Geo-
logical Magazine, vol. 9, p. 297, 1882, Richthofen writes, " Where this dust
falls on barren ground it is carried away by the next wind ; but where it

* J. A. Udden, Journ. Geol, vol. 2, p. 323, 1894.

t F. V. Emerson, Jmirn. Geol, vol. 26, p. 532, 1918.

t G. P. Merrill, Rocks, Rock-tveathering, and Soils, New York, 1906.

288 Transactions.

falls on vegetation its migration is stopped." Quite as we should therefore
expect, we find in one case nearly 5 per cent., iu another nearly 12 per
cent., of organic matter in the analj^ses cited above from Merrill. But the
Timaru deposit contains merely a trace. Hardcastle attempts to explain
this remarkable fact by assuming that " the growth of the deposit was so
slow as to nearly allow the rootlets of each generation of plants to suck
up the last remnants of the decay of previous ones.'' But any one who
understands what goes on in a soil clothed with vegetation knows that
this cannot take place. An article by Sir A. D. Hall in the Journ. Agric.
Science, vol. 1, p. 241, 1905, may be consulted in this connection.

Speight {loc. cit.) has- written, " The general absence of marine fossils,
the presence of remains of Dinornis and other land-birds, as well as its
peculiar distribution, is against a marine origin being assigned to it."
As regards marine fossils, setting aside the fact of those recorded by
Hutton {loc. cit.), which cannot be ex2:)lained on the aeolian hypothesis, we
must surely allow Hutton's contention that negative evidence on such a
question is of little weight. There are other cases of undoubted marine
deposits which are marked by a poverty of marine fossils. The greywacke
is one such ; the BuUer series of sandstones and conglomerates is another.
The Amuri limestone and the Weka Pass stone are also poor in the larger
forms that we might reasonably expect.

The presence of remains of Dinornis and other land-birds nmst be
interpreted rather as evidence in favour of marine origin than the reverse,
the bones having been washed down and covered in the silt by local stream-
action. It is obvious that birds require vegetation for their sustenance,
and moas could scarcely have lived on Banks Peninsula at a time when
loess was supposed to be forming, when it is considered that there is proof
that no vegetation was present on the part covered by the deposit — at
least there is no trace of it left. It may be noticed, in passiug, that the
advocates of the aeolian hypothesis call in local stream-action to account
for the cases of distinct stratification noticed by Hutton* at Lyttelton
and elsewhere, but are unwilling to allow the same agency to account for
the covering of the moa-bones.

As regards the peculiar distribution of the deposit, that also is, I think,
rather evidence in favour of its marine origin. Its occurrence within the
Lyttelton caldera is as reasonably explained by deposition from water
as by sui^posing, as is necessary to the aeolian hj'pothesis, that while it
was deposited on the lower portions of the outer slopes it was also carried
over the intervening ridges into the Lyttelton caldera without leaving a
trace of its path.

* F. W. HuTTOJf, Trans. X.Z. Inst., vol. 15, p. 411, 1883.

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence and U/r Valleys.

289

Art. XXXII. — The Geology of the Middle C.arence and Ure Valleys^

East Marlborough, New Zealand.

By J. Allan Thomson, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., Director of the Dominion

Museum.

[Read before the New Zealand Instilute, at Christchurch, 4th-8th February, 1919 ; received
by Editor, 17th March, 1919 : issued separatehj. Kith July, ^1919.]

Plates XXIV-XXIX.

Contents.

Introduction

General Account of the Geology and

Physiography
Pre-Notocene Rocks

Intrusive Rocks in the Pre-Noto-
cene
Notocene Rocks
Clarentian Rocks

Coverham . .

Isolated Hill Creek, Ure Valley

Upper Ure Valley

Middle Ure Valley . .

Lower Ure Valley

Mead River. .

Liraburne Stream

Dee River . .

Branch, Dart, and Muzzle Rivers

Bluii" River . .

Gentle Annie Stream . .

Herring (or Sejnnour) River

Quail Flat . . "

Nortli Bank, Clarence River,
opposite Tvtler Stream

Red Hill .".

Clarence River below Bluff River

Amuri Limestone and Weka Pass

Stone

IMead Gorge

Limburne Gorge

Dee Gorge . .

Chalk Range

Isolated Hill Creek

Upper Ure Valley

Middle Ure Valley

Branch, Dart, and Muzzle Rivers

Page
289

292
30.5

307
309
311
212
316
316
317
317
317
318
318
318
318
319
319
221

322
322
322

323

324

325

325

325

326

326-

327

327

Notocene Rocks — continued.

Amuri Limestone and Weka Pass

Stone — continued.
Bluff River . .
Gentle Annie Stream
Bluff Hill and Limestone Hill. .
Herring River
Age and Origin of the Amuri

Limestone
" Grey Marls "
Mead Gorge
Limliurne Gorge
Dee Gorge . .

Up})er Swale and Ure Rivers . .
Dart River . .
Muzzle River
Bluff River . .
Herring River
Age and Formation of the " Grey

Marls" ..
Great Marlborough Conglomerate

and Awatere Beds . .
Mead Gorge
Dee Gorge . .

Upper Swale and Ure Rivers . .
Dart River . .
Muzzle River
Bluff River
Se3-mour River
Deadman's Creek
Origin and Age of the Great

Marlborough Conglomerate . .
List of Papers cited
Postscript (February, 1919)

Page

327

328
328
328

330
336
337
338
338
339
339
339
339
339

340

340
341
342
342
342
.342
343
343
343

344

348
348

Introduction.

The middle reach of the Clarence River occupies a nearly straight valley,
some fifty miles long, trending north-east, between the enclosing ranges
of the Seaward Kaikoura or Looker-on Moimtains to the south-east and the
Kaikoura Mountains to the north-west, which rise to heights of 8,516 ft.
and 9,465 ft. respectively. The summits of these ranges are twelve to
fourteen miles apart across the valley, so that the area of this part of the
valley is some 600 square miles. The north-eastern end of this middle
10— Trans.

290 Tni/isactions.

reach of the Clarence is enclosed by an encircling rim of Io\ver mountains,
2,500-4,000 ft. in height, and before reaching this point the river turns
abruptly to the south-east and breaks througli the north-eastern continua-
tion of the Looker-on Range in a rock-bound gorge nearly 4,000 ft. deep.
The Middle Clarence Valley is thus difficult of access, and can be entered
only by a number of passes through the surrounding mountains, of which
the most used are the Burnt Saddle (2,073 ft.), between Kekerangu and
Coverham, crossing the north-eastern rim of the valley ; the Mount Clear
Saddle (3,000 ft.), between Reserve Station and Quail Flat ; and the
Palmer Saddle (3,185 ft.), from the Conway River to the Palmer River,
the two latter passes lying in the south-western continuation of the
Looker-on Range. These saddles are traversed by pack-tracks uniting the
above-mentioned places, and there are similar tracks running the whole
length of the valley. Other less-used tracks enter from the Awatere Valley,
the tv.'o chief crossing the Tone Saddle (3.800 ft.) and the Barefells Pass
(4,250 ft.). It is possible also to reach the Middle Clarence from Hanmer
via JoUie's Pass and down the Clarence.

The surface of the valley is rendered very diversified by the existence
of a large number of tributaries from each side, many of which enter the
main river by gorges some hundreds of feet in depth. Of these, ten on the
north-western side and six on the south-eastern side are large enough to
be dignified by the name of river, and there are numerous smaller streams.
The pack-track along the valley therefore takes on somewhat of the nature
of a huge switchback, often rising a height of 1,000 ft. between two
adjacent tributary rivers. The difficulty of access between different parts
of the valley is accentuated by the size and strength of the Clarence River,
which is not easily forded below the Bli^ff River.

Being cut off from the prevailing rain-bearing winds by high mountain-
ranges the Middle Clarence Valley, like the neighbouring Awatere Valley,
has a low rainfall, 20-30 in. per annum, and in consec[uence rain forest is
absent throughout its whole extent. The lower slopes are covered with
tussock-grass or manuka thicket, while small areas of beech forest occupy
the gorges of many of the tributary streams at heights of about 2,000-5.000 ft.
The intermediate rocky slopes and gorges bear, when not too steep, a
profusion of flowering-shrubs, but there are large areas of bare rock
and of talus slopes (screes and sliingle-slips) which are almost destitute of
vegetation.

The statement is frequently made that the higher peaks of the Kaikoura
and Looker-on Ranges are covered with permanent snow. As a matter of
fact, however, the higher peaks, though rising far above the estimated
snow-line for this latitude in New Zealand, are frequently free from snow
for several months in the year, except for a few days after a snowfall, and
in the early autumn only small patches of soft ice persist in the shady
hollows near the summit. The freedom from permanent snow must be
ascribed partly to the steepness of the slopes and, in the case of the
Kaikoura Range, partly also to the low rainfall during the summer. Owing
probably to this freedom from snow, alpine plants reach a much greater
height on the Kaikoura Range than in other mountains in New Zealand,
ancl Aston (1916) has recorded the presence of a species of Haastia at a
height of 8,500 ft. on Mount Tapuaenuku.

Owing to its inaccessibility and the broken nature of the country the
Middle Clarence Valley has hitherto escaped close settlement, and is divided
up into a number of pastoral leaseholds, of which the largest is the Clarence

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence and Vie Y(dl<'iis. 291

Run, of 114,300 acres. In early days a large number of small freeholds
were alienated, and the maps show road-lines throughout the valley, but
it is obvious from an inspection of the ground that both freeholds and
road-lines were laid down in the office without regard to topogra])hv. At
one time homesteads existed at the Bluff River and at Coverham, but they
have fallen into decay, and the former was at the time of my visit unoccu-
pied, while the latter is used as a musterers' hut. The only permanent
settlement at present existing is that at Quail Flat, which serves as an
out-station of the Reserve Station and is continuously inhabited tliroughout
the year. In addition to the above there are a small niunber of musterers'
huts, that at the Dee River lying on the main pack-track through the
valley. A traverse from Kekerangu to Reserve Station by pack-horse
occupies four to five days, the stops being at Coverham, Dee, Bluff, and
Quail Flat (optional).

Although the Middle Clarence Valley differs considerably in form and
rainfall from the shouldered and flat-bottomed valleys of Switzerland,
such as the Upper Rhone, one cannot help predicting that by the utiliza-
tion of the tributary rivers for electric power and irrigation it will, like
them, one day become the scene of a fairly close settlement. That day,
however, lies in the distant future, unless the discovery of mineral resources
should hasten it.

Before the actual geological exploration of the valley von Haast (1861)
had visited the lower Awatere Valley in 1859 and had gained a near view
of the Kaikoura Mountains. From the nature of the boulders in the gravel
of the river he inferred that the range consisted of eruptive and volcanic
rocks, unlike the Spenser Mountains and the Looker-on Range, which he
considered to be composed of sedimentary rocks. He further expressed
the opinion that to this volcanic action was due the upheaval of the two
latter ranges.

Similarly, in the summer of 1866-67, J. Buchanan gained a view of
the Middle Clarence Valley from the summit of the Looker-on Range, and
observed the long strip of white limestone forming a series of foothills at
the ba,se of the Kaikoura Mountains as far south-east as the Bluff River.

A. McKay was the first geologist to enter and explore the Middle Clarence,
which he traversed from Kekerangu to Hanmer in 1884-85, also crossing
from Reserve Station to Quail Flat. In 1888-89 he similarly explored the
Awatere Valley, and the four long reports (1886-1892) in which he recorded
his observations long remained the only source of information as to the
geology of these areas. They will be more fully noticed in tlie sequel, and
need not be discussed in detail now.

With the exception of Sir James Hector, who accompanied McKay to
Coverham in 1885, the Middle Clarence was not revisited by any geologist
until 1912, when Dr. Cotton and myself twice went in from Kekerangu as
far as the Dee River. In 1916 I again visited the same ground, and made
the ascent of Mount Tapuaenuku from the Dee in company with Messrs.
B. C. Aston, A. F. O'Donoghue, and H. Hamilton. Later in the same year
I crossed the saddle from Reserve Station to Quail Flat and proceeded
down the valley as far as the Bluff River. On three separate occasions
also I have visited the middle part of the Ure Valley in company with
various companions, including on separate occasions Dr. C. A. Cotton and
Mr. H. T. Ferrar.

Following on these visits, Dr. Cotton published in 1913 an account of
the physiography of the Middle Clarence Valley, and in 1914 a description
10*

292 T ransactions.

and explanation of the mode of origin of the great Marlborough conglome-
rate as developed in the Dee and Mead Gorges. My own publications on
this area comprise some brief observations in the Annual Reports of the
Geological Survey for the years 1912 and 1913, a paper on the petrography
of the intrusives of Mount Tapuaenuku (1913b), an account of the oil-
prosj)ects of the Benmore district (1915), a description of the Amuri
limestone and flint-beds as far south-east as the Dee Gorge (1916), and a
classification of the Clarentian rocks at Coverham (Woods, 1917).

The fossils collected by Dr. Cotton and myself from the Clarentian
beds, as well as the earlier collections made by McKay, have been described
in detail by Woods (1917), who has demonstrated the Albian age of the
beds below the flint-beds, and has thus added a new interest to the geology
of the area.

Although the area covered by my visits is much smaller than that
traversed by McKay, whose reports cannot, therefore, be superseded, there
are several reasons why a new account of the geology of the area should be
presented. Both from a structural and from a stratigraphical point of view
the district has become a classical one for New Zealand geology, and a more
succinct account is desirable. McKay's descriptions both of structure and
of stratigraphy are in the main accurate, but are couched in obsolete
terminology as regards the physiography, while the stratigraphy is inter-
preted in terms of the classification then adopted by the Geological
Survey, a classification which has now been universally discarded. In
particular, is it vitiated by the false correlation of the Cretaceous rocks
below the flint-beds (Clarentian) with those of Amuri Blufi (Piripauan),
and this has at times led him to an unbalanced description of the rock
sequence, emphasis being placed upon beds which are only locally developed
and of relatively small importance. In making these criticisms I do not
wish them to detract in any way from the great merit which I consider
attaches to McKay's work. His report of 1886, although long neglected
by other geologists than Hector, marked a new epoch in New Zealand
geology by its recognition of the late Tertiary age of the Kaikoura
Mountains, and must always remain a classic.

The area covered in this paper is so great, and the country so broken
and difficult of access, that a complete survey would occupy more than
one season of continuous work, and many years must elapse at the present
rate of progress before the district can be worked out in detail. The
observations both by McKay and by Dr. Cotton and myself can be looked
upon only as reconnaissance, and, natm-ally, we have visited somewhat
different ground, and devoted greater attention to different parts of the
area. There are many new observations, therefore, to be placed on record.

General Account of the Geology and Physiography.

Both from a stratigraphical and a physiographical point of view, the
rocks of the area may be divided into three main groups, as shown in the
following table. McKay did not explicitly recognize this threefold division,
and that part of his classification which relates to the present area is
appended in the table. Between his Pliocene and Cretaceo-Tertiary groups
he interpolated Miocene and Eocene from neighbouring areas. With the
exception of the supposed Pliocene conglomerate, however, he implicitly
recognized the unity of the middle group of rocks by describing them
together under a special section of his first report (1886).

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence and U re Valleys.

293

Cl(irtaC£.R.

Hapulfu R.
KAIKOURA

hahautaraR.

Fig. 1. — Map of eastern Marlborough.

\ \ \ Amuri limestone and higher Notocene beds ; /// Clarentian ; pre-Notoeene and
unsurveyed areas blank ; FF, faults. The Notocene rocks of the Awatere Valley
and of the coastal area are not shown.

294

i ransactions.

Tap.le r. — General Classification of the Rocks.

Stratigraphical.

Physiographical.

McKay, 1886 & 1890.

Nature of the Eocks.

Notoplcistocenc-

Superficial (unconsoli-
dated)

Recent

River alluvium, terrace
gravels, river fa.ns, talus,
and moraines (?).

Notocene

Covering strata (gene
rally weak but with
resi&tant strata of
limestone and con-
glomerate)

Pliocene

Mudstones (Awatere beds).

Conglomerates (great Marl-
borough conglomerate).

Mudstones (" grey marls ").

Limestone (VVeka Pass
stone).

Tuft's and phosphatic green-
sands (only locally de-
veloped).

Limestones and flint-lDeds
(Amuri limestone).

Mudstones, sandstones, ba-
salts, and conglomerates
(Clarentian).

Cretaceo-Tertiary
and Lower
C4reensaiad

Pre-Notocene

•

Oldermass (generally
strong).

Older Secondary
and Palaeozoic

Cxreywackes, argillites, and
jasperoid sediments uith
syenitic and basic intru-
sives.

The Notocene rocks in the north-east half of the valley form an elongated
strip a few miles in width on the north-western side of the Clarence River.
At the Bluff River there are two separated exposures, the south-eastern
of which crosses the river and continues for some distance to the south-
west, and farther in this direction other isolated exposures occur. The
rocks rest with marked unconformity on the pre-Notocene rocks which
underlie them on the valley-floor, and of which, with their intrusives, the
liigher mountains are exclusively composed. The Notocene rocks dip in
almost all exposures steeply to the north-west, and on their north-west
side end abruptly against fault-lines, with the exception of the south-
eastern outlier at the Bluff River. The most persistent of the faults, known
as the great Clarence fault, runs along the base of the Kaikoura Mountains
a few miles to the north-east of the river, and is described by McKay as a
reversed fault. A monoclinal ridge of limestone, cut through by numerous
gorges, has been developed by erosion in the tilted Notocene beds a short
distance riverwards from the fault, and, rising to heights of about 3,000 ft.,
form? a prominent series of foothills to the Kaikoura Mountains. The hills
clo3ing the north-eastern end of the valley, rising to 4,081 ft. in Benmore,
are a continuation of this monoclinal ridge, the line of strike bending
gradually from north-east to south-east.

The probable geological history of the area, as interpreted from the
stratigraphy, structure, and physiography, is resumed in Table II.

Thomson. — Gtnlogy of Middle Clarence and U re Valleys. 295

Table II. — Summary of Geological History of the Area.

Diastrophie Events. Corresponding Geological Events.

Orogenic movements.

Production of mnuntainons land surface, pro-
bably outside the area.

Epoch of relative inactivity (probably
Hokonuian).

Rapid erosion with deposition of pre-Notoccne
rocks.

Post-Hokonui orogenic movements. Folding of pre-Notocene rocks and production

of mountains, with resulting erosion.

Stage of early Notocene sea-advance,
w'ith local vulcanism.

Continued erosion of adjacent mountains to
pencplanation. with deposition of Clarentian
beds, including local lava-flows ; invasion of
pre-Notocene rocks by dykes and sills.

Local epeirogenic uplift.

Local unconformity between Clarentian and
Amuri limestone.

Stage of maximum Notocene sea-
advance.

Submergence of land ; deposition of Amuri
limestone and Weka Pass stone, divided by
a period of non-deposition.

Stage of late Notocene sea-retreat.

Renewed uplift and erosion of adjacent pene-
plains, with deposition of •' grey marls."

Local intense differential uplift. Deposition of fluviatile great Marlborough con-
glomerate by erosion of uplifted blocks.

Late Notocene sea-advance.

Deposition of Awatere beds.

Slight regional or differential upHft.

Initiation of antecedent or anteconsec|uent
drainage.

Kaikoura orogenic movements.

Elevation of Kaikoura and Looker-on Ranges,
with folding and faulting of the Notocene
beds ; development of consequent drainage ;
heavy erosion of mountains with develop-
ment of insequent drainage ; mature erosion
of valley lowland with slight development of
subsequent drainage.

Slight regional uplift.

Rejuvenation.

The area has experienced two epochs of major diastrophism — i.e., two
epochs of severe earth-movements of an intensity sufficient to raise moun-
tain-chains—which have left their effects clearly marked in the structure
of the rocks, while there is evidence for a still earlier epoch in a neighbouring

296

Transactions.

district. Little is known
the pre-Notocene rocks.

A.> ill

= V "'A ' . ■ \- ^

o
_o

c

>

o

o

6

of the age and the conditions of deposition of
They are clearly earlier than Clarentian (middle
Cretaceous), certainly Mesozoic in part, and
quite possibly wholly Mesozoic. They are
composed chiefly of greywackes and argillites
in endless alternations, both coarse and fine ;
marine fossils (Inoceramvs sp.) have been found
only in two places, in what are probably the
uppermost beds, while sandstones with obscure
plant-remains are reported by McKay in a
number of places. The rocks were, therefore,
probably deposited in shallow water, and with
considerable rapidity, in conditions under which
marine benthic life did not flourish. Cotton
(1918, pp. 56-57) considers that they might be
interpreted as the topset beds of a continental
shelf undergoing subsidence, but supplied with
a considerable but fluctuating supply of waste.
These conditions exist during the first stages
of sea-advance following a period of mountain-
building, so that we may see in the nature of
these sediments the evidence of an earlier epoch
of major diastrophism, which has, however, left
no other recognizable effects in the area under
consideration. Probably the mountains then
formed lay outside this area. The rocks stand
now for the most part in steep attitudes,
often showing in section closely folded syn-
clines and anticlines or contorted bedding,
with numerous small faults. Their lines of
strike vary rapidly from place to place. The
lowest Notocene rocks rest upon them with
strongly marked imconformity, the surface of
unconformity being a practically plane erosion-
surface truncating the pre-Notocene rocks at
angles approaching a right angle. It is obvious,
therefore, that the pre-Notocene rocks ex-
perienced a sharp folding to the degree of
mountain-building, and were subject to con-
siderable erosion before the deposition of the
lowest preserved Notocene rocks began. The
epoch of major diastrophism thus disclosed has
been termed by me (1917) the post-Hokonui
orogenic movement, from the fact that rocks
of Hokonuian age are involved in the present
area, and that in other parts of New Zealand
the youngest Hokonuian rocks • — viz., the
Wealden plant-beds of Waikato Heads — are
similarly involved. In the Clarence and
Awatere districts the lowest Notocene rocks
(Clarentian) are of middle Cretaceous age, so
that the date of cessation of the post-Hokonui
movement in this area must be early Cre-
taceous at the latest.

Thomson. — Geoloyii of Midtlle Clarence and Ure Valleys. 297

The evidence for a later major period of diastrophism is afforded by
the displacements which the whole Notocene series has experienced subse-
quent to the cessation of its deposition. A great fault runs along the
south-eastern base of the Kaikoura Mountains, along which all the Notocene
rocks are deeply involved. For the most part they have experienced a
strong tilt, and dip at steeji angles to the north-west against the fault, the
north-west side of which is occupied by pre-Notocene rocks. From the
Swale Valley north-east the Notocene rocks are strongly folded and com-
pletelv overturned in the upper limb of a recumbent syncline which is
truncated by the fault. The production of such structures proves the
existence of very considerable earth-pressures after the conclusion of the
Notocene deposition, and there are good reasons, as will be shown below,
for believing that the Looker-on and Kaikoura Ranges owe their uplift
to such orogenic movements of post-Notocene date, which Cotton (1916)
has termed the Kaikoura orogenic movements.

Between these two epochs of major diastrophism there ensued a period
of relative diastrophic inactivity — the Notocene — during which a great
thickness of accordant sediments was laid down. The presence of a thick
series of basalts near the base of the Clarentian in the south-west part of
the Middle Clarence doubtless points to crustal instability at this period,
and there are locally evidences of slight discordance and of disconformity
at higher horizons ; but such earth-movements as occurred throughout the
Notocene, with a single exception outlined below, were epeirogenic and not
orogenic in nature, and the general accordance of the whole Notocene is
most marked.

The nature and distribution of certain members of the Notocene leads
to the belief that these rocks had formerly a much wider extension, and
prior to the Kaikoura orogenic movements formed a cover to the pre-
Notocene rocks, a cover which has since been removed by denudation
where the movements carried it to higher elevations, leaving only a narrow
strip in the valley-bottom, w4iere it has been until recently below the
effective action of erosive agents — in other words, that the Kaikoura and
Looker-on Ranges did not exist as such at the time of the deposition of
the rocks in question. If they had so existed, and a long fiord had occupied
the site of the Middle Clarence Valley, the deposits of this fiord would have
been of the nature of river-delta deposits, mainly conglomerates and sand-
stones, so long as the mountains existed — i.e., throughout the whole Noto-
cene, since the mountains still exist. Instead we find conglomerates and
sandstones only poorly represented in the lower beds, which consist mainly
of mudstones, while the middle beds consist of limestones which are in part
argillaceous and in part of an indurated chalky and siliceous nature and
exceedingly fine-grained. The limestones are succeeded by more or less
calcareous mudstones, also fine-grained, and it is not till near the top of the
Notocene that coarse detrital matter reappears in the mudstones and in an
overlying conglomerate. This in turn is followed by further mudstones.
The whole series of sediments, except the conglomerate, has the characters
of the deposits of an open continental shelf {cf. Cotton, 1918), and not
those of delta deposits in a narrow fiord.

The lower and greater part of the limestone may be correlated on litho-
logical and stratigrapliical grounds with the Amuri limestone, the upper
part of the limestone and the succeeding mudstones with the Weka Pass
stone and the " grey marls " respectively of the Waipara district of North
Canterburv. These three rocks maintain the same lithological characters

298 T ran sact ions.

and relative positions throughout the whole of North Canterbury and East
Marlborough, and it is unthinkalile that they can be, in each of the narrow
strips in which they occur, only locally deposited rocks, and that they
were not laid down under approximately uniform conditions in relatively
clear seas over a wide area. They are involved between the mountains
not only in the Middle Clarence Valley, but also in the Awatere Valley to
tlie north-west and near the south-eastern base of the Looker-on Eange,
and it is probable, therefore, that they were formerly continuous over the
intervening areas and that the Kaikoura and Looker-on Ranges did not
exist as such at the time of their formation, although islands mav have
existed over their sites. This conclusion has been accepted by Hector,
McKay, and Cotton. The great Marlborough conglomerate, however, which
occurs near the top of the Notocene deposits of this area, has, on the
other hand, all the characters of a narrowly localized deposit, and had
not probably at any time a wide lateral extension.

Although the great Marlborough conglomerate is involved equally with
all the other Notocene beds in the Kaikoura orogenic movements, the
nature of its constituent pebbles and boulders affords proof of considerable
differential earth-movements prior to its deposition. It exhibits in the
Clarence Valley fairly regular stratification, and appears to be in the main
a fluviatile deposit. The majority of the pebbles are derived from the
pre-Notocene rocks, and are small and well rounded. In addition, there
are larger and often angular boulders, several feet in diameter, of Notocene
rocks, including all the beds down to the Clarentian.* It is obvious, there-
fore, that in the area from which the materials of the conglomerate were
derived the Notocene rocks had been elevated above sea-level and exposed
to erosion, and, since the underlying Notocene beds are nowhere less than
4,000 ft. thick and reach as much as 12,000 ft., the amount of earth-move-
ment must have been considerable. There is, in the Clarence Valley at
least, the further peculiar relation that although the conglomerate contains
boulders of rocks exactly similar to the underlying Notocene beds, never-
theless it is perfectly conformable to the underlying " grey marls," and in
the Dee and Mead Gorges at least there are transitional beds. This relation
is explained by Cotton (1914) by the assumption that faulting took place,
not disturbing the horizontality of the beds now underlying the conglomerate,
but differentially elevating a neighbouring area to an extent of perhaps
12,000 ft. Since no folding or warping of the Notocene took place, he
concludes that the movements must liave been block-faulting, with the
restriction that the uplifted block alone moved. These movements may
perhaps be looked upon as the early stages of the Kaikoura orogenic move-
ments, and must have affected a large part of the Kaikoura Range. Since,
however, the conglomerate is involved equally with the other Notocene
rocks in the main Kaikoura deformation, it may best be classed as Notocene.
This classification is confirmed by the presence above the conglomerate
of marine Notocene rocks.

While it is indubitable that the middle part of the Notocene as
locally developed — viz., the Amuri limestone, Weka Pass stone, and " grey
marls " — formed a cover to the oldermass which has since been removed
by erosion from the higher ground, it is not so certain that the Clarentian
beds were everywhere also j^art of the cover. So far as is at present known.

* Near Kekerangii, immediately outside the area, the great Marlborough conglome-
rate contains large masses of Amuri limestone, some 72 ft. in greatest diameter.

Thojison. — Gfolor/!i of Middle Clarence a/ul l^re Valleys. 299

Clarentian beds occur in the South Island only in the Clarence and Awatere
Valleys, and in the hill near Charwell Flats, south of the Looker-on Range,
where Dr. Cotton and I found " Modiola " kaikoiirensis in conglomerates
forming the base of the Notocene at that point. Possibly, however,
the basal beds of the Notocene in the Puhipuhi Mountains and the Cape
Campbell Range are also of the same age. The thickness of the known
Clarentian rocks varies rapidly from place to place, suggesting the proximity
of land during their deposition. The basal beds from the Herring River
to the Bluff River are terrestrial, and the marine rocks, of which the series
mainly consists, are throughout terrigenous, consisting of conglomerates,
sandstones, and mudstones, with glauconitic rocks but feebly developed.
The thickness of the series, 3,000-9,000 ft., exceeds that of the whole
Notocene series in localities such as Oamaru, where peneplanation of the
oldermass is known to have been complete before sea-advance, and, com-
bined with the lithological characters, afiords clear evidence that consider-
able erosion of not very distant land was going on throughout the whole of
the Clarentian. Although the nature of the surface of deposition as seen in
unconformable junctions suggests that the relief of the oldermass was not
great, the physiographical evidence for peneplanation is not strong, and
it is quite possible that during the Clarentian land may have existed on the
site of the Kaikoura and Looker-on Ranges, breaking the continuity of the
cover laid down on the oldermass. In estimating the minimum extent
of the Kaikoura deformations by adding the thickness of the Notocene
to the present heights of the mountains, it is therefore wise to omit the
thickness of the Clarentian. For the Kaikoura Range, however, it is neces-
sary to take into account the Clarentian volcanics, since the range is seamed
with dykes between the present outcrops of these rocks in the Clarence and
Awatere Valleys, and at least 1,000 ft. should be allowed on this account.

The total results of the Kaikoura deformations consisted in the forma-
tion of two immense tilted blocks, the Kaikoura and Looker-on Ranges,
bounded by great fault-scarps on their south-east sides, with an inter-
mediate fault-angle, the Middle Clarence Valley. Hector (1886, pp. xiv, xv)
described the nature of the movements as an extremely local but bold
anticlinal fold, the crown of the arch of which collapsed with the formation
of a deep longitudinal groove, and considered that the thrusting force
which produced the reverse fault came from the west. Cotton (1913, p. 227)
considered the results of the movements as the production of two anti-
.clinoria, the axes of which correspond with the ranges, with an intermediate
synclinorium, one limb, however, being represented by a reversed fault
of enormous throw. It appears probable, both from the lack of summit
accordance in the north-eastern parts of both ranges and from the strong
folding which the Notocene beds have experienced near the Bluff and the
Ure Rivers, that the deformation was not simple tilting but was accompanied
by folding, and that the initial surface was, at least in places, warped into
anticlinoria Vvdth an intermediate synclinorium before faulting took place.
vSince a cover of at least the Clarentian volcanics and the middle Notocene
rocks — say, 4,000 ft. — must have once occupied the sites of the Kaikoura
Slountains, the total vertical movement must have been at least 13,000 ft. ;
but if a preliminary folding took place the total displacement along the
fault-lines may have been very much less. Cotton (1913) in his diagram
represents the great Clarence fault with a throw of 8,000 ft. or 10,000 ft.,
but states that it is possible that it is considerably more, and that there is
no way of arriving at an accurate estimate of its amount (see fig. 3).

300

Transactions.

The longitudinal profile of the Kaikoura Range, if not actually conclusive
of warping, is not inconsistent with such a method of deformation. From
Mount St. Bernard north-east to Mount Symons the range has an approxi-
mately even crest at a height of a little over 7,000 ft. It then rises abruptly
to the Tapuaenuku massif, with several peaks over 8,000 ft., and culminat-
ing in Mount Alarm (9,4:00 ft.) and Tapuaenuku (9,465 ft.). Farther to
the north-east a saddle of 5,516 ft. divides this massif from the Camden-
Ben Fluick group of peaks, which lie between 6,166 ft. and 6,560 ft. in
height. From thence north-east the peaks lessen rapidlv in height, the
principal being Black Mount (4,835 ft.), Malvern (4,680 ft.), and Blue
Mountain (4,080 ft.), and they are separated by relatively deep saddles.

•..>iV:o Conglomerate (Rcsistarrt)
Ti I mH Marl (V/eal')

(y/eak)
L.mostonB aid Flint (Ret.«tant)

Fig. 3. — Diagram illustrating the type of structure and sculpture in the JMiddle Clarence

Valley (after Cotton).

The range is narrowest between Mount St. Bernard and Mount Symons.
and the Tapuaenuku massif is buttressed on the Av.^atere Valley side by
a great spur running from Mount Alarm through Mitre Peak and Mount
Gladstone, these three peaks being sej)arated by deep saddles on the spur.
Mount Gladstone (7,780 ft.) is three miles north-west of Mount Alarm and
is only 1,600 ft. lower, whereas farther south-west the descent from the
summit of the range for the same distance is at least 4,000 ft.

The summits of the Tapuaenuku massif are formed of intrusive rocks,
which may have enabled them to resist erosion better than other parts of
the range ; but -the summit of Blue Mountain is formed of similar intru-
sives, and they are probably present throughout the intervening area. The
streams draining the lower part of the range to the north-east do not appear
in distant views to be more mature than those draining Tapuaenuku,
so that it is probable that the original crest sloped fairly steeply from
Tapuaenuku to the Blue Mountain. The saddles may be neglected, as they
are obviously the result of erosion.

As soon as the earliest Kaikoura deformations raised part of the area
above sea-level a drainage-pattern must have been established, which may
have been considerably different from the present jjattern. There is little
reason, however, to suppose that it was markedly different, for the later
movements would tend to follow approximately the lines of weakness
established during the earlier movements. The drainage-pattern established

Thomson. — iitoloijij of 'Middle Clartncc and lire VaUeys. 301

bv tlie differential uplifts which gave rise to the great Marlborough con-
glomerate must have been in large part destroyed by the subsequent
drowning during the deposition of the marine (Awatere ?) beds which follow
the conglomerate. The greater part of the present drainage-pattern appears
to be consequent on the later, more intense, deformations. This part
includes the Middle Clarence Valley, occu]\ving the tectonic depression
between the two mountain blocks, and the numerous large streams entering
it on both sides nearly at right angles. The course of the Lower Clarence
River in the gorge, however, demands a different explanation.

The Clarence River on leaving the middle valley bends at a right
angle, and passes between the north-eastern end of the Looker-on Range
and the Sawtooth Range in a rock-bound gorge nearly 4,000 ft. in depth,
cut through the pre-Notocene rocks. This bend, as Cotton (1913) has shown,
is not an elbow of capture, since there is no gap by which the Clarence
could have had its outlet before the hypothetical capture, nor have other
eastward-flowing streams made any appreciable progress in breaching the
continuous wall of the Looker-on Range. This part of the river-course
must tlierefore be a survival of an older system of drainage, the river
cutting down a gorge as the mountains rose.

The Notocene rocks are found at no great distance apart on each side
of the range at this point, and it is practically certain that the oldermass
was here completely submerged during the later Notocene, so that any
pre-existing drainage must have been completely destroyed. The course
of the river through the mountains cannot, therefore, be antecedent in
the sense of a relict of a pattern existing on an emergent portion of the
oldermass during the main Notocene depression. It must be explained,
therefore, as an anteconsequent course (c/. Cotton, 1917, p. 253) — i.e., a
course established during the early stages of the deformation.

The great development of the great Marlborough conglomerate in the
area between Kekerangu and the Lower Clarence demands the assump-
tion of local differential movements in this area as well as over the site of
the Kaikoura Range, but the mountains then formed may have lain either
on the site of the Sawtooth and Looker-on Ranges or seaward of the pre-
sent coa.st-line near Kekerangu. The latter is the more probable, since the
Sawtooth Range is flanked on the south-eastern side by Clarentian rocks,
followed by the Amuri limestone in the Lady Range, which would not be
the case if the material of the conglomerate were derived from an uplifted
block on this side. The elevation of the Sawtooth Range, then, appears
to be due to the anticlinal folding of the later deformations. Prior to these
more intense movements one must assume an even or slightly differential
uplift after the deposition of the marine beds following the conglomerate,
with the formation of a coastal plain sloping to the south-east. On this
plain consequent rivers draining south-east became established, and one of
these persisted through the later deformations as the lower course of the
Clarence River. Probably this anteconsequent drainage removed the greater
part of the softer marine beds overlying the conglomerate, so that when
the later faulting took place the former were preserved only in the Bluff
River and from Deadman's Creek southwards.

The Kaikoura and Looker-on Ranges probably did not escape Noto-
pleistocene glaciation, but its effects have probably been destroyed by the
heavy subaerial erosion which followed, since there is no evidence to show
that the Middle Clarence Valley was ever occupied by a glacier, while the
mountains themselves, so far as explored, now exhibit only the work of

302

Transactions.

normal agents of erosion. It must be remembered, however, that there
has been exceedingly little exploration of the higher ground, and that
small cirques may exist. In the valley of the Branch River, at a height of
about 4,000 ft., I observed from above a peculiar accumulation of debris
which seems neither the result of talus slopes nor of stream-action. The
upper part of the valley consists of a large depression, circular at the top
in plan, filled with a steeply sloping mass of talus in large blocks often
many feet in diameter, below which water may be heard trickling. This
depression may possibly be a cirque since filled with talus. Farther down
the valley, at the point of junction with a large tributary on the right side,
there is a large accumulation of shingle running out horizontally from the
intervening spur, to which it forms a continuation for some hundred or
more yards. The broad top is divided into two parts by a median longi-
tudinal impression. The only explanation of this peculiar accumulation
that has suggested itself to me is that it is the commencement of a median
moraine formed by the coalescence of two lateral moraines with the inter-
mediate depression not filled. Obviously, however, it is a fairly recent
feature, formed after considerable dissection of the range had taken place.

Fio. 4. — Moraine -like aceuniulation in the Upper Bran.eh-

[h) in front elevation.

(ft) in side elevation,

The Kaikoura Mountains are asymmetrical owing to the existence of
the fault-scarp on the south-eastern side, and have always been so. It is
rather on the more gently sloping north-western side, therefore, that snow-
fields would be likely to accumulate, and the effects of glaciation may be
expected to be more intense on that side, which has not been explored.
The same holds true for the Looker-on Range. It must be remembered,
however, that the north-west side is the more sunny side, and is exposed
to the dry north-westerly winds.

Aj^art from the slight glaciation, the ranges have been greatly dissected
by stream erosion, coupled with severe frost-action on the higher ground.
Except on actual cliffs, the summits are mantled over with angular blocks of
immense size, and Mount St. Bernard, the top of which is dome-shaped,
presents the appearance of a gigantic mound of shingle. The upper parts
of nearly all the streams consist of huge shingle-slips, and the streams
are thus heavily loaded with waste, which nevertheless soon becomes
rounded in its transport down-stream. In spite of the immense erosion
which is made evident, neither the enclosing ranges nor the Middle Clarence
Valley have entirely lost their original asymmetrical character.

The Looker-on Range descends to the valley in spurs of comparatively
even and gentle slope, whereas the Kaikoura Range presents much steeper
slopes, especially in the lower part, where steep spurs end abruptly near
the fault-line. This asymmetry is more marked opposite the Tapuaenuku

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence and Ure Valleys. 303

massif, where a single fault dominates the structure, than in the south-
western part of the valley, where there are two or three parallel faults.
In the north-eastern part the strip of Notocene rocks lies wholly to the
north-west of the river, and is much nearer to the summit of the Kaikoura
than to that of the Looker-on Eange. Originally the river may have run
in the actual fault-angle, and if so it has doubtless been forced to the other
side of the valley by the heavy accumulations of talus that must have
accompanied the production of the fault-scarp. It is quite possible, how-
ever, that the actual angle was not the jjottom of the original tectonic
depression, and that the present course of the river is approximately the
axis of the original synclinorium.

The fault-scarp of the Kaikoura Range along the line of the great
Clarence fault is not well preserved north-east of the Dee Stream, where
the crowded insequent tributaries of the Limburne, the Mead, and the Swale
have dissected the original front scarp. From the Dee south-west for some
miles there are steep spurs, passing into veritable facets of some thousands
of feet in height, above which appears a ])rominent bench. It seems pro-
bable that this part of the range has undergone a later renewed faulting,
for below it the relief forms cut in the Notocene rocks have been, according
to McKay's descriptions, completely covered with heavy deposits of gravel.
Cotton, who with the writer viewed this part of the valley from a distance,
describes it as a stretch of piedmont plain, now dissected, formed by the
coalescence of fans of coarse waste.

McKay described and mapped the great Clarence fault as bending
obtusely at the Bluff River, and running obli(|uely to its former course
as far as Quail Flat, where it resumed its original direction. It is true that
a little to the south-east of the Bluff River the strip of Notocene rocks
pinches out, but it appears highly probable that the fault continues on in
its original direction for a considerable distance, bounded on each side by
pre-Notocene rocks. On the valley side these have not been worn to so low
a relief as the Notocene rocks farther north, owing partly to their strength
and probably partly to the fact that they form a smaller tilted block facing
a parallel fault along the line of the river from Red Hill to past the Herring
River, close to which they rise to heights of over 3,500 ft. The line of the
great Clarence fault to the south-east of the Bluff River appears, in a distant
view, to be marked by a series of well-preserved facets for a number of miles.
Doubtless, as between the Dee and the Muzzle, this part of the fault-scarp
o\\'es its origin to a later renewed faulting. It may be suggested that the
depression in which Lake McRae lies is on the continuation of the great
Clarence fault, and that it continues on into the valley of the Dillon River,
which is thus, like the Clarence, a tectonic depression.

The greater part of the drainage of the mountain-ranges is, as already'
mentioned, accomplished by consequent streams which join the ClareiK-e
nearly at right angles, together Avith their insequent tributaries. These
streams run approximately south-east and north-west. In the mountains
to the west of the Upper Clarence there is a very marked deveIo2:)ment of
streams with north-north-east and south-south-west courses, suggesting a
well-developed subsequent drainage. The Elliott River joins the Clarence
River with a south-south-west course, immediately opposite the Gore River,
which has the same direction, flowing north-north-east. Both these rivers
rise in passes through the enclosing ranges, and the line of the two is
continued to the south-west by the Conway River, and to the north-east
by the Tone River and Castle Creek, tributaries of the Awatere River. This

304 Transactions.

alignment is very marked and can hardly be accidental ; but whether it is
a case of ordinary subsequent drainage conditioned by the existence of a
band of weak rocks, or of an old fault-zone, or is consequent on recent
faulting oblique to the general line of the Kaikoura faults cannot be deter-
mined on the evidence at present available. It is perhaps significant that
this line approximately connects the greatest develoj)ments of Clarentian
volcanics in the Clarence and Awatere Valleys, suggesting the existence of
a pre-Clarentian line of weakness in the same direction.

In the period following the Kaikoura orogenic movements the Clarence
River became graded, and the lower slopes of the middle valley, consist-
ing largely of Notocene rocks, were reduced to mature erosion forms. This
mature topography has been partially obliterated, south-west of the Dee,
by smothering with gravel fans coalescing into a piedniont plain at the
base of the Kaikoura Range, and probably due, as explained above, to
a renewed uplift along the line of the great Clarence fault. Both the
mature erosion form^3 and these gravel plains have been jjartially dissected
by a revival of erosion caused by a late regional uplift, which elevated the
delta of the Clarence River 600 ft. (Cotton, 1914b), and gave rise, after
rejuvenation, to well-marked terraces of much less height between Quail
Plat and the Bluff Rivei'.

In the strip of Notocene rocks involved along the line of the great
Clarence fault the hard strata of the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass
stone, lying between the softer Clarence mudstones and the " grey marls,"
stand up as a monoclinal ridge cut through by the nximerous gorges of the
consequent tributaries of the Clarence River. The south-eastern slopes
present precipitous escarpments, passing below into great screes of dazzling
white limestone, which cover the outcrops of the highest Clarentian beds
and often those of the flint-beds. The north western dip-slopes where not
too steep are covered with a rich black soil, and afford the best pastures
of the valley. Since the ridge contains no air-gaps, and since the gorges
of the streams that cross it often fork within the limestone, Cotton con-
cludes that the drainage must have assumed its present form before
denudation had exposed the limestone monocline as a prominent ridge,
and that the streams now occupying the gorges may be described as
superposed consequents which flowed initially upon gieat screes from the
fault-scarp.

Along the greater part of the great Clarence fault the great Marl-
borough conglomerate, which is also a resistant band, rests against the
pre -Notocene rocks, and does not form a marked feature in the topography ;
but to the north-east of the Swale Gorge, where it is surrounded on each
side by mudstones, it forms a series of hogbacks, the highest of which is
known as the Razorback Ridge. This is, nevertheless, much inferior in
height to the limestone monoclinal of the Chalk Range near by.

The softer members of the Notocene series, and particularly the mud-
stones of the Clarentian and of the " grey marls," have been reduced to
lower relief with the development of subsequent streams along their lines
of strike. In the Clarentian the best-developed subsequents are those
of the Nidd, Cover, and Wharf, tributaries of the Swale Stream, which
separate low strike ridges, mainly of sandstone. Along the outcrop of
the " grey marls " there are a number of short subsequent streams form-
ing a single linear depression, which does not appear ever to have been
occupied by a single stream. The grade formerly established in the
insequent and subsequent tributaries of the consequents flowing into the

Thomson. — Geolof/y of Middle Clarence and U re Vcdleys.

305

Clarence River has been destroyed by the rejuvenation consequent on the
recent epeirogenic uplifts, which has worked back almost to their sources,
while a regrading has seldom extended more than a short distance from
their mouths.

The Pre-Notocene Rocks.

Owing to their monotonous character, and to the general absence of
distinctive lithological or fossiliferous strata which might give some indica-
tion of their structure and disposition, the study of the pie-Notocene
rocks is difficult. I have not attempted it, and must limit myself to such
casual observations as I have made. McKay has made a special study
of these rocks in certain areas, especially in the mountains between the
Wairau and Awatere Valleys, in the Muzzle, ajid between the Elliott
River and the Upper Clarence, and has attempted to establish a sequence
in the first and last localities ; the lowest beds he describes as grey sand-
stones and slaty shales with broken plant-remains, and these are followed
by a series of red and green rocks which are calcareous near Taylor's
Pass, between the Wairau and the Awatere ; similar rocks near the Elliott
River are again overlain by sandstone.

The directions of strike and dip appear to be very variable, doubtless
owing to the folds of a smaller order, and to numerous faults, which tend
to obscure the major outlines of structure. On the whole, McKay describes
the rocks as striking in a north-easterly direction, with dips to the south-
east or north-west. Many of his observations, however, appear to have
been made at a distance, and cannot in these cases be accepted as alto-
gether reliable, since joint-control plays a large part in determining the
details of outcrop, and greywacke bluffs often trend transversely to the
strike. My own observations, resumed in Table III, would tend to show
that a strike west of north is prevalent in at least some parts of the area.
Cotton (1913, p. 241), arguing from the variability of the strikes and dips,
considers it probable that the older axes of folding make an angle with
those of the later Kaikoura folding — i.e., that the prevalent strikes are
oblique to the trend of the mountains.

Table III. — Observed Strike and Dip of Pre-Notocene Rocks.

Locality.

strike.

Dip.

Spur from upper end of Ure Gorge to Bhie Mountain . .

N.E.

Nearty vertical.

Tributary of Whai-f Stream from Sawtooth Range, at

N.

20° W.

Steep, N.E.

unconformity with the Clarentian

The same .stream, half-mile up

N.

50° W.

Clarence River, upper end of Quail Flat

N.

20° E.

40°, S.E.' '

Clarence River, lower end of Quail Flat

N.

30° W.

Nearly vertical.

Herring River, at unconformity with north - western

N.

15° W.

Very steep, S.W.

Clarentian outcrop

Herring River, at imconformity with south-eastern

N.

15° W.

50°, S.W.

Clarentian outcrop

Pack-track from Quail Flat to Reserve Station, half-mile

N.

30° W.

Steep, S.W.

on Reserve side of saddle

The same, a few hundred yards nearer Reserve

N.

70° W.

Nearly vertical.

The same, half-mile nearer Reserve . .

N.

35° W.

Nearly vertical.

The same, :200 yai'ds nearer Reserve . .

N.

50° W.

56°, S.W.

The same, small saddle two-thirds way dowii . .

N.

30° W.

Nearly vertical.

306 Transactions.

The majority of the pre-Notocene rocks show a striking resemblance
to the greywacke-argillite series so prominently developed in the Welling-
ton district and in the eastern mountains of Canterbury, but it is perhaps
significant that neither McKay nor I have observed the annelid Toiiessia
mackat/i Bather, so common in tliese other areas. The only palaeonto-
logical evidence of age found by McKay, besides broken plant-remains, was
a fragment of a fern " apparently Taeniopteris,'" from the lowest beds on
the west side of the Elliott River. This would tend to prove, if his
identification of the specimen and his reading of the sequence are correct,
that all the pre-Notocene rocks are of Mesozoic age. They are all, of
course, pre-Clarentian — i.e., earlier than the iniddle Cretaceous. The pre-
sence of bands of red and green argillites in the Kaikoura Mountains,
however, renders this .improbable. During the ascent of Tapuaenuku I
observed from above one sucJi band in the hills fronting the fault-line
between the Mead and Dee Eivers. The Lands and Survey majJ of the
Tapuaenuku Survey District presumably records a second band of these
rocks by the name " Red Hills " given to a spur on the north-west side of
the Hodder River. Now, in the similar rocks crossing Tavlor's Pass,
McKay (1890, p. 116) records the presence of fossiliferous limestones yield-
ing fragments of Inoceramvs shells. It must be remem})ered that the
Permo-Carboniferous Wairoa limestone also contains fragments of a fibrous
shell commonly called Inoceramus by McKay, so that it is perfectly possible
that the limestone of Taylor's Pass is also Permo-Carboniferous, and that
similar rocks occur in the Kaikoura Range.

I have observed in two widely separated localities fragments of fossil?
which indicate a Mesozoic age for the rocks containing them, but in neither
case are the rocks quite typical of the pre-Notocene greywacke-argillite
series, and they belong, I believe, to a younger series, though both are
most clearly pre-Clarentian. In the lower Dee River, after the basal
Clarentian conglomerates are passed, and on the banks of the Clarence
River between the Dee and the Limburne, the rocks consist of hard sand-
stones, not unlike typical greyw^ackes, and much-jointed black mudstones
with white bauds and large rounded concretions, in which coarse frag-
ments of a fibrous shell like Inoceramus are found. Again, in the Herring
River, the rocks lying unconformably below the eastern Clarentian outcrop
consist of thin and regularly bedded sandstones alternating with shale-,
none of the rocks being much more indurated than many exposures of the
Clarentian. They strike N. 1-5° W., and dip at 50° to the south-west,
whereas the overlying Clarentian rocks strike N. 40° E., and dip at 40°
to the north-west, so that the unconformity is exceedingly well marked.
From the underlying series I obtained a nearly complete specimen of
Inoceramus, which I submitted to Mr. H. Woods, of Cambridge, but
unfortunately he pronounced it indeterminable as to species. The sand-
stones also contain plant-impressions. I believe a sufficient collection could
be made at this point to determine the age of this series. I discovered
its fossiliferous nature only on my way out from the valley and after the
pack-horses carrying my luggage liad preceded me up the pass, so that it
was impossible at that time to spend any length of time collecting.

Sandstones and shales, in general similar to the typical greywackes and
argillites, but somewhat less indurated, and containing calcareous con-
cretions, are of wide otturrence in Marlborough. They underlie the Ujiper
Cretaceous beds at Amuri Bluff unconformably, and have been termed by
Buchanan (1867) the '' marlstones,"" a name that is certainly ina})plicable.
Similar rocks were termed bv von Haast the " cannon-ball sandstones."

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence and F re Valleys. 307

I have observed these concretionary rocks in the Awatere Valley between
Middlehurst Sta.tion Creek and the George River, and around Awajjiri.
Thev are present in the lower Woodside Stream, and thence along the road
to the Ure River, and for some distance up this valley. In the Clarence
Valley they occur not only at the mouth of the Dee, but at Quail Flat and
in the Lower Herring River, and the latter occurrence tends to link them
up with the Inoceramus sandstones farther up the same river. The rocks
immediately under the north-western Clarentian outcrop are concretionary
sandstones interbedded with thin argillites, and strike N. 15° W., with a
dip nearly vertical but steeply to the west.

There is a series of rocks in the Ouse River which perhaps belongs here ;
it lies below the Clarentian rocks, but the unconformity is not well marked
and was overlooked on my first visit, so that I supposed they were all
Clarentian. The rock immediately below the Clarentian basal conglomerate
is a thick, massive grey sandstone containing slialy partings. Below this
for over two miles the rocks consist of hard black shales and hard sand-
stones with occasional concretions. There are many small contortions and
faults, and the dips are very irregular. Two conglomerates of considerable
thickness which appear in the series contain greywackes, cpiartzites, and
red jasperoid rocks, besides soft sandstones, crystalline limestone, and
porphyries. At the time of examination I considered them, with the over-
lying rocks, to be Clarentian, and from their great similarity to Clarentian
conglomerates elsewhere it is possible that they are of this age and are
involved in the pre-Notocene rocks by faulting ; but of this I saw no trace.
Unfortunately, owing to the amount of water in the stream, I did not
examine the relation of the lower conglomerate to the beds farther down
the stream.

Intrusive Rocks in the Pre-Notocene.

Intrusive rocks of various kinds have a great development in the pre-
Notocene rocks of the Kaikoura Range, and particularly in the Tapuaenuku
massif (Plate XXIV, figs. 1 and 2), the upper part of which is composed almost
solely of them. Owing to their hard nature they form the majority of the
boulders in the Dee and other tributaries of the Clarence, and also in the
Hodder and lower Awatere Rivers. In 1913 I described their petrological
characters from specimens collected from the Dee gravels, and, although
there are doubtless numerous other types besides those collected there,
the general character of the series is clearly enough apparent. The more
siliceous rocks consist of quartz syenites and c|uartz diorites. The less
siliceous are mostly fine- and coarse-grained doleritic or gabbroid rocks,
frequently containing olivine, brown hornblende, and biotite, and rarely
quartz. In addition there are hornblende lamprophyres and doleritic
rocks with lamprophyric affinities. The list of rock- varieties given by
Hector (1886, p. xxxi) does not appear to be the result of microscopical
examination, and may be safely neglected ; nor can McKay's identifica-
tions of the rock-varieties be regarded as more than a general indication
as to their nature.

McKay (1890b, p. 130) considered that the rocks were injected into the
pre-Notocene at two widely-separated periods, the older rocks, consisting
of diorites, syenites, and felsite rocks resembling elvanite, being confined
to the pre-Notocene, while the darker-coloured and more basic rocks were
intruded subsequently to the deposition of the lower part of the Clarentian.
The latter rocks in the Awatere Vallev, between the Otterson and Tone

308 Transactions.

Rivers, he describes as crowded with dark basic dykes, which can be traced
into the pre-Notocene of the Kaikoura Range. The evidence of the Claren-
tian basal conglomerates is to this extent favourable to McKay's division
of the rocks : that the only igneous rocks included in them in either the
Clarence or the Awatere Valleys are granites, microgranites, and cjuartz
porphyries. Typical granites or quartz porphyries, however, have not yet
been found in the Kaikoura or Looker-on Ranges, and I incline to the
opinion that the syenites belong to the same period of vulcanicity as the
more basic intru^sions, and that this period is coincident with the outpour-
ings of Clarentian lavas in the upper parts of the Middle Clarence and
Awatere Valleys. There are four reasons for this belief. In the first place,
such a differentiation series is common in intrusive rocks, as witness the
association of granophyres and quartz dolerites with the Tertiary volcanic
rocks of the British Isles. In the second place, intrusions in the greywacke-
argillite series of both Islands of New Zealand are rare, whereas in the
Kaikoura Range they are abundant, and lie between two prominent
developments of Clarentian lavas. In the third place, boulders of the
svenites appear to be totally absent from the great Marlborough conglome-
rate, suggesting that they had not been uncovered by erosion at the time
of its formation. Finally, and most conclusively, I observed that the
syenites on the spurs leading to Mount Tapuaenuku contained frequent
inclusions and schliere of camptonitic facies.

In the ascent of Mount Tapuaenuku I observed occasional dense
amvgdaloidal dykes in the pre-Notocene rocks of the upper Dee. At
about 6,000 ft., "on the spur between the Dee and the Branch, the pre-
Notocene rocks have a strike a few degrees west of north. The upper
part of this spur, right to the summit, is composed of a reddish syenite,
intersected by innumerable dark dykes 1 ft. to 2 ft. thick, which have
mostly an east- west trend (Plate XXIV, fig. 2). The neighbouring spurs on
each side appear to have the same character. On the exterior these dykes
are often dense, but in the centre coarsely crystalline. This proves that
the syenite had cooled sufficiently to be fissured before the intrusion of the
dark dykes, and perhaps even sufficiently to chill the margins of the dykes,
although tachylitic selvages were not observed. The dark dykes, however,
are intersected and faulted by one another, proving that they were injected
at sufficiently distant intervals to permit of consolidation before the next
intrusion.

The greatest development of the intrusives is undoubtedly in the Tapuae-
nuku massif, but they are probably present in smaller number throughout
the range. In the upper Muzzle,' McKay states that " the sedimentary
rocks are more rapidly degraded than the trap-dykes intersecting them,
so that the latter, traceable for long distances, form a remarkable feature

in a wild and rugged landscape The brecciated slaty beds

and mudstones are broken up and so rapidly removed from the slopes
of the range on the east side of the creek that the dykes project various
heights above the general surface. They trend for the most part north,
between barren slopes of black shingle, while a lesser number of dykes
running south-east, and some of them east, enclose areas which, while the
barriers stand, are completely walled around. The greater number of the
dykes trend north, and pass into or under the cluster of peaks south of
Tapuaenuku." (McKay, 1886, pp. 50, 51.)

Judging from the small number of igneous boulders in the Bluft" River,
McKay considers it clear that comparatively few dykes are present in the
mountains drained by it, but he observed " several massive dykes of a

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate XXIV.

i

.'^

[5. ('. Aston, photo.

Fio. 1. — The .summit of Mount Tainiaenuku, showing the rubble that mantles the

higher peaks of the Kaikoiira Range.

'^^^B

^

m

f

''flHHKi ' v'^'.'sBi^l^jS,

■ ' -■

.M

[B. C. Aston, photo.

Fig. 2.— a cliff of " syenite " on a spur leading from the Dee River to Mount
Tapuaenuku, sliowing numerous intersecting dark dykes.

Face p. 30S.]

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate XXV.

---^^?r^.

Kp"

[C. A. Cotton, photo.

Fig. 1. — View from Coverham, looking westward. The foreground consists of
Clarentian rocks, in the middle distance the monoclinal ridge of Amiii'i
limestone is cut bj^ the Mead Gorge, and in the distance Mount
Tapiiaenuku is seen.

[C. A. Cotton, photo.

Fig. 2. — Junction between Clarentian conglomerate (above, left) and pre-Notocene
greywackes (below, right) in a tributary of the Wharf Stream.

Thomson. — Geology of MichUt Clarence and Ure VaJIei/s. 309

serpentinous character " in the lower slopes of the range, near the mouth
of the gorge. Between the Dee and the Mead River McKay notes the
presence of numerous dykes of grey porphyritic syenite and dark porphy-
ritic hornblende rock intersecting the older rocks of the higher part of the
range. From the Mead to Blue Mountain the higher ground is unexplored
geologically, but the presence of dykes may be inferred from the boulders
present in the gravels of the Swale. The summit of the Blue Mountain
and for a considerable distance the spurs descending from it are composed
of a dark, coarse-grained dolerite, which weathers to a gritty waste in
places covered with a reddish, dry soil. There are lighter-coloured patches
with.in the intrusion, the forms of which were not clear. On the spur
running from the upper end of the Ure Gorge to the summit the junction
with the pre-Notocene rocks was observed. The latter strike north-east at
this point, and dip almost vertically, but a little lower down they are
sharply contorted. There appeared to be a contact mineral in the argil-
lites near the junction, but it was too much weathered for microscopical
determination. At the observed junction the intrusive rock was light-
coloured and finer-grained than elsewhere, and other fine-grained specimens
were observed in the screes higher up. I have noted below the occur-
rence, at a lower level in the Blue Mountain Stream, of fine-grained dark
dykes invading the Clarentian. Before the formation of the great Clarence
fault these rocks presamabiy stood at a high level, and may be apophyses
of the Blue Mountain intrusive.

So little geological exploration of the pre-Notocene rocks of the Looker-
on Range has been made that little can be stated as to the abundance of
intrusive rocks. I noted the presence of a moderately coarse doleritic dyke
a little on the Reserve side of tlie saddle on the pack-track between the
Reserve and Quail Flat. McKay records the presence of some dykes of grev
intrusive rock, judged to be diorite, on the east side of the range, north-
east of the Kahutara gorges, and dykes of a darker colour and basaltic
character on the western side of the same part of the range. A fair
percentage of coarse- and medium-grained doleritic rocks is present in the
gravels of the Hapuku River, proving the presence of intrusives in the
north-east part of the Looker-on Range. McKay states that he is informed
that in the gravels of the George River, entering the Lower Clarence on
the south side, there is so great an abundance of dark-coloured crystalline
boulders as to make it comparable in this respect with the Dee or the
Branch. I observed a boulder of lustre-mottled hornblendic rock in
Heaver's Creek, but as this occurred below the outcrop of the great
Marlborough conglomerate it is unsafe to make any deductions from it as
to the presence of dykes in the headwaters of that stream. The tributaries
of the Wharf, draining the other side of the Sawtooth Range, contain no
boulders of igneous rocks above the outcrops of the Clarentian conglomerates .

McKay has described a great number of intrusive rocks in the country
north-west of the Awatere River, and from his descriptions they seem to
resemble those of the Kaikoura Range.

'o^

The Notocene Rocks.
So far as Notocene geology is concerned, the east coast of the South
Island may be divided into two main diastrophic districts, characterized
by the age and nature of the middle limestone member, the dividing-line
being the Rakaia River. The southern district has as the middle member
of its sequence a relatively shallow-water and mainly bryozoan limestone,.

310 Trmisactions.

the Ototara limestone, which is Ototaran, or Middle Oamaruian, in age.
The northern district has as the middle member of its sequence two lime-
stones, often separated by a phosphatic band, the lower (Aniuri) limestone
being relatively deep-water and chalky, and certainly older than Ototaran.
The closing member of the marine sequence in the southern district is
Awamoan (Upper Oamaruian), whereas in the greater part of the northern
district the closing member is Waitotaran (early Wanganuian). Both
districts may be again subdivided according to the age of the earliest
marine transgression. The sequence in the southern district commences
north of the Kakanui River with Ngaparan (Lower Oamaruian) beds, but
south of that river there are two or three localities where it commences
with Kaitangatan beds. The sequence in the northern district commences
with Cretaceous beds, which south of the Hapuku River are Piripauan
(Senonian), but north of that river are Clarentian (Albian).

The reasons for uniting the Notocene rocks of north-eastern Marlborough
with those of south-eastern Marlborough and northern Canterbury in a
common diastrophic district are especially the presence in each area of the
Amuri limestone, Weka Pass stone, and " grey marls " ; but there are two
other characteristics, besides the age of the basal beds, which distinguish
the two subdistricts. In the northern the Amuri limestone attains an
enormous development, being measurable in thousands of feet, instead of
in hundreds as in the southern, and flint-beds are well developed. More-
over, although where the full sequence is preserved the Waitotaran beds
are present in both subdistricts, in the northern one they are separated
from the lower marine Notocene beds by a tluviatile deposit, the great
Marlborough conglomerate, which appears to have no counterpart in the
Waipara area, although it occurs as far south as Greenhills and Amuri Bluff.

There are several separated outcrops of Notocene rocks in the Middle
Clarence Valley, due to involvement along parallel fault-lines, and in one
case to involvement in a synclinal depression. The fault-lines run in a
north-east and south-west direction, and are inclined very steeply. McKay
describes them as reversed — i.e., with dips to the north-west — and I have
not made any observations which tend to disprove this ; but in the majority
of sections the fault-line is obscured by slips and talus slopes. The Noto-
cene rocks in all cases lie to the south-east of the fault, and dip ab steep
angles against it — i.e., to the north-west — the lower beds resting uncon-
formably on pre-Notocene rocks to the south-east. The outcrops thus take
the form of strips, narrow in proportion to their length, and trending
north-east and south-west.

The principal strip is that along the great Clarence fault, which extends
from the Gentle Annie Stream to the Ure Valley. In the middle part of
this strip, from the Bluff River to the Mead River, the Notocene rocks
form a simple monoclinal series with minor folding in the lower rocks. At
each end the rocks are folded into synclinals, that at the north-eastern end
being overturned and truncated by the branching of the fault, so that the
succession for some distance to the south-east of the fault-line is reversed,
and the beds from tJie limestone upwards are repeated several times.

Along the middle part of the strip, from the Bluft' River to the Mead
River, the whole Notocene series up to the great Marlborough conglomerate
is preserved in such a way that the latter rock everywhere rests against the
fault at the surface. As there is no great difference in level at the surface,
this shows that the base of the Notocene has not been greatly warped m
a direction longitudinal to the fault-Une. This is not the case in the other
parallel faults.

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence (ind Ure Valleys. 311

At the north-eastern end the structure becomes complex. There is
a large area of down-faulted Notocene rocks between tlie Isolated Hill
Creek, the upper Nidd, and the eastern side of Whernside. The limestone
of Whernside is continuous with that of Benmore by a narrow strip, and
presents a steep scarp to the Benmore Stream, where it probably rests
conformably on Clarentian rocks. Along its north-western boundary it is
probably faulted against the middle or upper Clarentian. The main mono-
clinal ridge of Amuri limestone passes from the Chalk Range and Brian
Boru in a great curve to Benmore, but the outcrop of the Clarentian rocks is
divided mto two parts by the infaulted limestone of Whernside. The upper
Clarentian beds outcrop under the limestone on the same curve, finally
feathering out in the upper part of the Isolated Hill Creek. The lower
beds cross the upper Wharf into the watershed of the Kekerangu River,
where the whole series is presumably again resumed in the Front Ranges.

Discontinuous strips of Notocene rocks are involved along a second fault,
which we may call the Quail Flat fault, running from the Gore River to
the mouth of the Herring River, thence approximately along the Clarence
River past Quail Flat, and ending on the north-west side of Red Hill.
Between the Gore River and the Herring River all beds up to the Weka
Pass stone are involved at river-level, and in the Herring River the width
of the outcrop is extended by well-marked folding for some miles to
the south-east of the fault-line, l)ut farther to the north-east only dis-
continuous strips of the lower Clarentian rocks are preserved. There is
evidently along this line strong longitudinal w^arping of the base of the
Notocene, equal to nearly the whole thickness of the series, besides
transverse folding.

A third small strip of lower Clarentian rocks only is involved in another
parallel fault, which crosses the Herring River several miles above its mouth.
This fault has not been traced on either side of the river. McKay (1887,
p. 104) mentions the existence of two other " outlying patches " of Clarentian
rocks, the one east of Gridiron Hill, the other one and a half miles to two
miles east of Limestone Hill, but whether these are involved along the
same or still another fault-line or are simple outliers is not known.

The large outcrop of Notocene rocks which extends from Bluff Hill
across the Clarence River (below the junction of the Bluff River) to beyond
Limestone Hill has not been satisfactorily explored. It is apparentlv not
involved along a fault-line, but seems to constitute an outlier preserved by
a synclinal depression west of the great Clarence and Quail Flat faults.
The Notocene here attains its greatest elevation, rising to 4,231 ft. in
Limestone Hill.*

In the detailed descriptions following it will be convenient to treat
separately the Clarentian, the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone, the
■' grey marls," and the great Marlborough conglomerate.

The Clarentian Bock-s.

The Clarentian as defined by me in 1917 comprises all those Notocene
rocks in the Middle Clarence Valley lying below the flint-beds at the base
of the Amuri limestone. In the neighbourhood of Coverham fossils have

* There are at least three mountains in the Clarence Valley to which this name
has been given — one in the Upper Swale Valley, one between the Mead and Dee Gorges,
and one on the south-east side of the Clarence River, above the junction of the Bluff
River. It is the last that is here referred to.

312 Transactions.

been obtained from almost the bottom to the top of the series, and have
been pronounced by Woods (1917) to belong all to one fauna, which he
correlates with the Lower Utatur group of India, which is of about the
same age as the Upper Gault and Upper Greensand of England — i.e., Albian.
Moreover, all other fossils from rocks having the same relative position
in both the Middle Clarence and Awatere Valleys are, according to Woods,
of sinailar age, so that the inclusion of all these rocks under one group-
name is justified, although the total thickness of the Clarentian at Coverham
surpasses the whole of that of the Notocene in places such as the Waipara
district, where rocks from Senonian to Pliocene are represented. This
is probably due to the fact that the Clarentian deposition followed close
on the post-Hokonui orogenic movements, and erosion on a fairly emergent
land-mass was still active. Probably also the Coverham area was not far
from the mouth of a large river.

The Clarentian rocks, while preserving for the most part the same
general character of sandstones and mudstones, vary rapidly from place
to place, and there is no single characteristic stratum which can be followed
from end to end of the valley. There are, nevertheless, some notable
differences in the rocks at the two ends of the valley. The rocks at Cover-
ham are dominantly black mudstones with occasional calcareous con-
cretions, divided into three main groups by sandstones, and resting on
conglomerates. In the Herring River, and thence nearly to the Bluff River,
the sequence commences with terrestrial coal-measures, followed by several
lava-flows, and these are succeeded by a marine series of sulphurous mud-
stones, sandstones v.dth pebble-beds, loose sands, and giauconitic sandstones.

Coverham (Plate XXV, fig. 1). — I have suggested the following division
of the sequence at Coverham (Woods, 1917, p. 2), but it must be clearly
understood that this classification has a strictly local application : —

Feet.
Sawpit Gully mudstones . . . . . . . . 3 , 200

Nidd sandstones and mudstones
Cover Creek mudstones
Wharf Gorge sandstones . .
Wharf mudstones
Basal conglomerates

c

550
2.000

450
1,500

250

The conglomerates were examined in a tributary of the Wharf Stream
coming from the Sawtooth Range, where they strike at the base X. 40° E.,
dipping at 45° to the north-west, and near the top strike N. 60° E., with dip
60° to north-vv'est. The underlying pre-Xotocene greywackes and argillites
strike X. 20° W., with a steep dip to the north-east. The unconformitv is
well exposed in section (Plate XXV, fig. 2). The conglomerates are, in part,
of a peculiar character, not uncommon elsewhere in the Clarentian — viz.,
that they consist of well-rounded pebbles, a few inches in diameter, of
hard rocks such as quartzite, set in a matrix of mudstone. The con-
glomerate series at this point commences with beds of hard conglomerate
alternating with this pebbly mudstone, then some layers of pure mudstone,
and then more bands of pebbly mudstone, the whole being about 250 ft.
in thickness. The conglomerate consists mainly of well-smoothed ellip-
soidal pebbles of hard sandstone and quartzite, up to Sin. long, but
mostly with a major diameter of 3 in. to 4 in., with only a few pebbles of
mudstone and soft sandstone near the base. Green and liver-coloured
quartzites are relatively rare, but white quartz and bright-red and pink

ThomsOjV. — Geology of Middle Clarence and Ure Vrdlci/s. 313

jasperoid quartz are common. Granites and porphyries are only occa-
sional Iv seen, while dark crystalline rocks appear to be absent. No schist
or limestone pebbles were observed. The conglomerates were not followed
along their outcro]). They cross the Ouse Stream about a Cfuartcr of a mile
below the junction of the Wharf as a narrow band of pelWjly mudstone.
only 5-10 ft. thick. As already mentioned, there are two thick bands of
conglomerate farther down the Ouse which may possibly be Clarentian.

The Wharf mudstones form both banks of the Wharf Stream between
the gorge and the crossing of the pack-track, above which the strike
becomes more easterly, and the beds continue into the upper Wharf.
The rocks are mainly dark micaceous mudstones without many con-
cretions, and near the junction of the tributary above mentioned yield
finelv-preserved specimens of Belemnites superstes Hector. Near the cross-
ing of the pack-track sandy beds are crowded with the shells of a large
depressed Inoceramus, and lower down the creek the mudstones contain
Aacellina euglypha and Belemnites superstes. No observations of strike
and dip were made, except that in one place on the left side there is a
reversal of dip. In the upper Wharf, what are presumably the Wharf
beds consist jiredominatingly of mudstones containing large Inocerami,
with occasional bands of harder sandstone, forming waterfalls, and thin
bands of pebbly mudstone. The beds are thrown into a series of folds,
so that a clear section was not observed. The mudstones, however, are
very thick. The Wharf beds were again observed in the Ouse, about
200 yards below the junction of the W^harf, in a large cliff on the right-
hand side consisting of thin-bedded sandstones and mudstones. The sand-
stones contain coaly plant-remains, and one block with shell-fragments was
obtained, which contained a plicate ostreid shell, part of the dorsal valve of
a Terebratellid (the only brachiopod yet obtained from the Clarentian), and
a small piece of the test and some minute spines of an echinoid. A con-
cretion picked up at this point contained a gasteropod and a Dentalium,
and is in the hands of Professor Wilckens, of Jena, for identification.

Still farther down the Ouse, the lowest Wharf beds consist of hard
mudstones crowded with a large flat Inoceramus, and are the cause of
small waterfalls on tributaries coming in on each side {of. Cotton, 1913,
fig. 14). No specimens suitable for identification could be extracted, but
pieces 9 in. in length were obtained, and the whole shell must be over 1 ft.
in length.

McKay's description of the Wharf beds is as follows : " The lowest
rocks, as conglomerates, are rather suddenly succeeded by black slaty,
marly beds, containing concretions of cone-in-cone limestone, and sandstone
bars full of Inoceramus, and here and there a belemnite and other fossils
characteristic of the Amuri series."

The Wharf Gorge sandstones and mudstones occupy a width of about
a quarter of a mile in the Wharf Gorge, which crosses them transversely
to the strike, and in the lower part of the Cover Stream. The rocks are
dominantly sandstones, in beds 6 ft. thick below and 3 ft. above, and
are parted by thin beds of mudstone. The sandstones in the upper j)art are
fissile and slightly micaceous, and contain poorly preserved plant-remains,
principally fossil wood, and occasionally the cast of a belemnite. The
strike in the lower end of the gorge is E. 10° S., dip 63° to the north.
The Wharf Gorge beds extends in an east-north-east direction into the ridge
between the Wharf and Cover Streams, but are not there well exposed
for study. Where they cross the Ouse the sandstones are not so well

314 Transactions.

developed. They have here a strike of N. 60° E. and dip 45° to the
north-west in the lower part, and a strike of N 70° E., and dip 56° to
the north-north-west at the junction of the Ouse and Nidd.

McKay describes the Wharf Gorge beds as follows : " The higher beds
{i.e., higher than the Wharf beds] are thick bedded sandstones of a grey
colour, light-grey or yellow when weathered, parted by thinner beds of
black slaty shale."

The Cover Creek mudstones are black micaceous mudstones with
numerous small irregular calcareous concretions which are more generally
fossiliferous than those of other divisions of the Clarentian. Belemnites
and occasionally specimens of Inoceramus are also found embedded
directly in the mudstones without being surrounded by concretions.
There are a few occasional beds of sandstone. The beds below the
house at Coverham strike N. 60° E., with dip 55° to the north-west.
A little farther up the Cover Creek the strike turns more to the north.
The beds cross the lower Nidd and are exposed in the lower Swale, where
they have the same characters but are less fossiliferous. The best
locality for fossils lies in Cover Creek, about 200 yards above the old
sheep-dip. Here were obtained the ammonite Turrilites circumtaeniatus,
Belemnites swperstes, Inoceramus concentricus, the carapace of a crab, a small
compound coral, the skeleton of a fish, numerous fish-scales, and specimens
of fossil wood. McKay's description of the Cover Creek and higher beds
is as follows : " These beds [the Wharf Gorge sandstones] are followed
by softer, more argillaceous or marly strata, until reaching a bed of
sandstone, which yields the fossils of the black grit, and thus the sequence
of the Amuri series is here somewhat arbitrarily brought to a close. . . .
The black grit ... as a calcareous sandstone contains ammonites,
Liocerarmis, fish-scales, and numerous leaves of a plant common enough
in the underlying Buller series. ... At Coverham, from the horizon
of the black grit to the flint-beds underlying the Amuri limestone, there
is an enormous development of black micaceous clay-marls, divided into
two parts by a band of grey or brown sandstones containing plant-
remains. These beds are crowded with calcareous concretions, and,
especially in the higher beds, contain Inoceramus in great numbers."

Unfortunately the collections preserved by McKay from Coverham were
disappointingly small and poor, and the ammonite mentioned above was
not amongst them. There is a little uncertainty which is the bed he
called the black grit, but it is probably a sandstone in the Cover Creek
beds opposite the house, which lies 50-100 ft. below the horizon where
Turrilites circumtaeniatus was obtained, and which can be traced into the
Nidd.

The Nidd sandstones and mudstones cross the Nidd obliquely above
the junction of Sawpit Gully with a strike of N. 60° E. and a dip of 55°
to the north-north-west, and they cross Sawpit Gully near the bottom.
They consist of sandstones with a greenish tinge, 1 ft. to 2 ft. in thickness,
separated by 6 ft. to 20 ft. of mudstones. Both sandstones and mudstones
contain in abundance a large Inoceramus. They are followed, up the
Nidd, by sandy mudstones which become flinty above, and contract the
valley to a gorge. The mudstones contain a considerable amount of
pyrites and exhibit a yellow efflorescence. The flint-beds seem to widen
in outcrop to the east in the ridge between the Nidd and the upper Cover,
where they form a prominent strike ridge. A little to the south there is
a parallel strike ridge, apparently formed by the lower sandstones. The

Thomson. — GcoUjc/ji of Middle Clarence and lire Valleys. 315

flint-beds do not seem to persist to the west into the Swale, but about
a mile and a half above the junction with the Ouse there is a series of
banded sandstones and mudstones, striking east-north-east, and dipping 40°
to the north-north-west, which probably represents the lower sandstones.

The Sawpit Gully mudstones are clearly exposed in the steep bed of
Sawpit Gullv (Plate XXVI, fig. 1), and consist predominantly of black
mudstones, but occasional thin beds of sandstone are found. There is
some folding in the section, but, on the whole, the dip is to the north-
north-west, like that of the overlying flints and limestones. Calcareous
concretions up to 1ft. in diameter are common in the upper 400 ft., but
below that they are rarer. In the uppermost 15 ft. pyritous nodules are
abundant, but they do not persist far downwards. At the actual junction
with the flint-beds there is a strong yellow efiiorescenc^^ The junction
appears to be quite conformable. Inoceramus concentric is var. jjorrectus
was obtained 20 ft. below the junction and also at about 100 ft. The
ammonite Gaudryceras saijci was obtained in a large concretion about
300 ft. below the junction.

The Sawpit Gully beds are exposed in the Nidd above the flint gorge,
where the valley again opens out in the softer rocks. Near the base
there is a band of sandstones and sandy mudstones containing a large
species of Inoceramus. The higher beds are fine-grained black mudstones
with small concretions, in which fragments of crustaceans were observed.

In the Swale, owing to slips and talus slopes, there is not a continuous
exposure of the Sawpit Gully beds. Not far from the top there is some
sharp folding of the beds, causing local reversals in the direction of the
dip (Plate XXVI, fig. 2). From the highest exposure concretions containing
numerous specimens of AucelUna euglypha and fossil wood and plant-
impressions were obtained.

The thicknesses given above for the various divisions of the Clarentian
at Coverham were estimated, except in the case of the conglomerates,
by measurements from a section drawn to true scale. An average dip
of 55° was allowed, but it wiU be observed that the dip is often steeper
and seldom less than that figure. The reversals of dip due to folding are
unimportant, but have been allowed for. An almost continuous section
of the beds has been observed, and no faults of any consequence were seen.
Consequently, unless there is a very strong unconformity between the
Clarentian and the Amuri limestone and a repetition of the beds by closely
appressed folds, there is no escape from the conclusion that the thickness
given is approximately correct. Hector and McKay agree in estimating
the total thickness up to the " grey marls " as approximately 12,000 ft.
Woods remarks that the thickness, if correctly estimated, is very great
in view of the unity of the molluscan fauna.

The beds are marine throughout, and calcareous concretions are abund-
ant, but plant-remains and fossil wood are found in the sandstones and
concretions from top to bottom. The black colour also of the mudstones
and sandy mudstones is doubtless due to the presence of carbonaceous
matter. Glauconite has been observed only in the greenish sandstones
of the Nidd beds. The above facts, together with the rapid lateral
variation in the sandstones and the presence of the pebbly mudstones
in the lov/er beds, suggest that the whole series was deposited as the
topset beds of a continental shelf undergoing rapid depression and near
the mouth of a large river, the sands and gravels of which were arrested
nearer shore or up the estuary by its drowning.

316 Transactions.

Hector's subdivision of the beds from Coverham to the Mead Gorge is
as follows : —

Contorted sandstones {Belemnites superstes) ; volcanic dykes.

Concretionary marls ; large Inoceramus.

Sandstone with plants.

Septaria clays, with Inoceramus, belemnites, and Conchothya.

Black grit with fish-scales, ammonites, Inoceramus.

Black marls with sandstone bands.

Plant-sandstones with Dentalium majus, Nerita, Naiia, Inoceramus

{=-- Amuri sands).
Belemnite sandstone.

Black marls with cone-in-cone limestone bands.
Green sandstones.
Conglomerates and brown sandstones containing plants and coal.

In attempting to establish a similarity with the Piripauan beds at
Amuri Bluff, Hector has given in the above succession too much promi-
nence to the sandstone bands and too little to the black mudstones which
make up about 90 per cent, of the succession. The green sandstones
mentioned were probably observed on the Kekerangu side of the pack-
track from that place to Coverham, where such beds occur.

The Clarentian near Coverham is occasionally penetrated by intrusive
rocks which consist of very much weathered amygdaloidal basalts. A dyke
trending E. 15° S., nearly vertical but with a slight inclination to the
north, appears in the north-east bank of the Swale about a mile above its
junction with the Nidd. A similar, somewhat thicker dyke, but possibly
the same, outcrops a quarter of a mile farther up-stream. McKay describes
a dyke in the Wharf as separating the upper and lower beds — i.e., a sill.
It is of similar petrological character, and is either a sill or else a dyke
truncating the beds very obliquely. These intrusives are similar to one
penetrating the Amiiri limestone in the Kekerangu River, and are probably
to be correlated in age with the volcanic rocks overlying the Amuri lime-
stone in the Ure Valley and in the Herring River.

Isolated Hill Creek, Ure Valley. — From the Chalk Range the Amuri
limestone swings round in a great curve to Benmore, and the underlying
Clarentian beds follow suit, but owing to the inaccessibility of this heavily
forested and deeply gorged country they have been examined only in the
Isolated Hill Creek, a tributary of the Ure River which cuts through
the limestones and flints in a gorge between Isolated Hill and the spurs
of Benmore. At the top of the gorge the strike of the flint-beds and
underlying Clarentian is east-north-east, with dip 36° to the north-north-
west. About 1,500 ft. of Clarentian beds are exposed, consisting of
dark-grey indurated mudstones or sandy mudstones, rapidly disintegrating
into small angular fragments on exposure. Concretions of all sizes up
to 7 in. diameter occur sparingly thoughout, but are rarely fossiliferous.
One large ammonite was obtained in a concretion from the stream-gravels,
but was declared by Mr. H. AVoods to be indeterminable. The beds
terminate downwards against a fault which has brought down the Whern-
side block of Amuri limestone and flint-beds against the Clarentian.

The junction between the Clarentian beds and the overlying flint-beds
appears not onh' to be perfectly conformable, but to exliibit a passage
between the two formations. It is described in detail below.

Upper Ure Valley. — The Notocene rocks in the upper Ure and upper
Swale Valleys form a great overtiirned syncline, truncated by the great

Trans N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate XXVI.

[('. A. Cotton, photo.

Fig. 1. — The Chalk Range, from the south-south-east, showing Sawpit (^lully
(in the centre) entering the Nidd Stream (on the left).

Jft^-;j:<fc^

f-. V-^'-*j'y-'\-;

^'Z

%p^2^j^%^.JH*-^;

A-

\

■-: •''*=*!^

J*\r.

[C. A. Cotton, photo.

Fig. 2. — -Front of rock terrace in the Swale River valley, showing folding in the

Sawjiit Gully mudstones.

Face p. 3J6.]

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate XXVII.

^•^

i*V:l%"|';. ^.

[B. C. .4.s<on, photo.

Cliffs on the left bank of Isolated Hill Creek, showing the accordant dip of the
Clarentian mudstones (below) and the flint-beds (above).

Thomson. — Geoloyy of Middle Clarence and F re Valley.-i. 317

Clarence fault and its branches. Where on the upper side of the syncline
the sequence' is reversed, a small thickness of Clarentian beds lies above
the flint-beds, between them and the fault-line. These were observed in
the large tributary of the Ure Eiver entering it in a south-east direc-
tion from Blue Mountain. About 100 ft. of Clarentian beds are hpre
exposed, consisting of micaceous mudstones weathering purple-grey with
a yellow efflorescence on joint-planes. They have the same strike as
the underlying flint-beds — viz., north-east — with a dip of about 50° to the
north-west — i.e., towards the fault-line. A large concretion lying in the
creek at this point was observed to be crowded with fibrous fragments
of Inoceramus. There appears to be perfect conformity with the flint-
beds. The actual fault-line is obscured by slips.

In a tributary of the above creek, entering if from the north-east
along the fault-line, some decomposed amygdaloidal basic volcanic rocks
were seen to the north-west of the flint-beds, and are therefore probably
in the Clarentian series.

Middle Ure Valley. — Pebbly mudstones were observed in the Blue
Mountain Creek at the apparent top of a series of hard sandstones and
thin-bedded mudstones apparently overlying the Amuri limestone or Weka
Pass stone, which is here not more than 150 ft. thick, and strikes in
a north-easterly direction, dipping north-west. Probably the series is
overturned and the succession reversed at this point, as it is higher up
the Ure Valley. The conglomerates contain fragments of Inoceramus
and pebbles of dark limestone (itself containing Inoceramus), besides white
quartz and red jasper. A fault crosses the creek about two miles up,
and above this, in a branch running to the Blue Mountain, the Clarentian
rocks appear to be repeated. There is a succession of hard sandstones
with occasional shaly beds, both containing occasional plant fossils, and
thin pebbly mudstones containing Inoceramus fibres. There are many
repetitions of the pebbly mudstones in the creek. Many small dark fine-
grained dykes were observed intersecting the sandstones.

Lower Ure Valley. — Clarentian rocks are probably well developed in
the hills to the north of the lower Ure, where thin bands of Amuri
limestone appear, but exposures are not good and the sequence has not
been clearly ascertained. Not far above the crossing of the coach-road
a syncline of limestone occurs, underlain by sandstones and mudstones
containing Inoceramus. The limestone crosses the hills obliquely and
terminates against the Awatere beds, probably in a fault-line, and the
beds farther up the hills to the west are therefore probably Clarentian.
They consist mainly of sandstones, but the top of Hungry Hill is com-
posed of volcanic breccia, which may be Clarentian. McKay correlates
it with the Flaxbourne breccias, which lie at the base of the Clarentian
series in the Ward district

Mead River. — McKay describes the Clarentian rocks exposed in the
Mead River as follows : "In the Mead, the conglomerates at the base of
the Amuri series are finely exposed. The succeeding beds are grey sand-
stones and darker shales thrown into a great number of undulations,
which are flat and shallow, or more frequently sharply caught up at high
angles, and are often crushed and contorted in a most extraordinary
inanner. Here beds of this character continue without means of dis-
tinction upwards into the Waipara formation, and, scarcely altered in
character, reach to the under-surface of the great flint-beds that underlie
the Amuri limestone."

318 Transactions.

To this description I have little to add. No recognizable fossils have
been obtained from the Clarentian beds in either the Dee' or the Mead,
and consequently the beds have not been closely studied. The series
appears to be considerably thinner than at Coverham, but the thickness
is difficult to estimate owing to the contortions near the base. There is
also some sharp folding near the top, and the beds run nearly horizontally
for some distance. Before reaching the flint-beds, however, they once
more assume the dip of these. The actual junction is not exposed.

Limburne Stream. — The series commences with pebbly mudstone, hard
sandstone, and a second pebbly mudstone, all striking nearly east and
west, and dipping to the north. The succeeding beds are a series of thin-
bedded sandstones and mudstones. No fossils were obtained, and the
junction with the flint-beds could not be observed.

Dee River. — The Clarentian rocks are not well exposed on the banks
of the Dee River, and have yielded no fossils except fragments of
Inoceramus . The series commences with a pebbly mudstone followed by
a hard sandstone. Higher up the beds appear to be mudstones and thin-
bedded sandstones with few or no concretions. The total thickness appears
to be much less than that at Coverham.

Branch, Dart, and Muzzle Rivers. — For this part of the district we must
relv solely on McKay's observations. He states that the lower part of
the Clarentian (so-called Amuri series) is essentially the same as in the
Mead and the Dee. The upper part in the Dart River, for some distance
below the commencement of the limestone, consist of " grey sandstones
and soft, crumbling sandy beds of dark colour, with small calcareous con-
cretions containing Inoceramus, and small spheroidal concretions of iron-
pyrites. ... In the Muzzle the beds are highly-contorted sandstones
and sandv or marly shales containing, near the under-surface of the
Amuri limestone, saurian concretions of enormous size, one specimen of
which, yet in situ on the east bank of the left branch of the river, is
about 14 ft. in diameter." The name of " saurian concretion " was given
from a mistaken correlation with the saurian beds of the Piripauan.

Bluff River. — There are two outcrops of Notocene rocks in tbe Clarence
Valley near the Bluff River, separated by an anticlinal core of pre-Notocene
rocks. The north-western outcrop is similar in its structural relations to
those already described from Coverham to the Muzzle River, and is con-
tinuous with them. The south-eastern outcrop will be described later.

In the Bluff River the Clarentian rocks are not well exposed, owing to
slips on the banks, and I was unable to observe certain beds evidently
exposed when McKay examined the section. The lowest beds I observed
were about 600 ft. of thick-bedded mudstones and sandstones, with a dip
to the south-east — i.e., aw^ay from the limestone. Higher up the river
there are sandstones on the west bank with a normal dip — viz., 75° to
the north-west — the strike being N. 50° E.

McKay describes the succession as he observed it as follows : " The
lower beds of the Amuri series are for a short distance obscured along both
banks of the river. Rocks belonging to the younger series first show on the
south-west bank of the river as bancled sandstones with shaly beds between.
These are overlain by sandstones and conglomerates, some of the con-
glomerates containing fragments of a large Inoceramus and great numbers
of a large form of Trigonia. . . . Belemnites, usually as fragments, are
also found in these conglomerates. The sandstones are almost destitute
of fossils. To the north-west, and higher in the section, these beds are

Thomson. — Geologii of Middle Clarence and Ure Valleys. 319

followed by dark sandy beds with concretions, the ouier part of whieli
consists of cone-in-cone limestone ; and these are succeeded by the Amuri
limestone."

Gentle Annie Stream. — The Notocene beds continue from the Biulf
River into the Gentle Annie Stream,, where the Amuri limestone occurs
in a syncline. The Clarentian beds below tiae limestone to the south-east
are not well exposed, b\it the presence of muddy sandstones di])ping to
the north-west was observed.

Herring [or Sei/monr) River. — The exposures of Clarentian rocks described
from Isolated Hill Creek, Coverham, and the Mead to the Crentle Annie
all belong to a continuous strip forming the lower member of the Notocene
rocks involved in the great Clarence fault. From Bluff Hill to the Gore
River there are other outcrops of Notocene rocks involved along the more
north-easterly parallel faults, except for the large outcrop between Bluff
Hill and Limestone Hill, which seems to occupy a synclinal depression.
Many of these outcrops include only Clarentian rocks, while in others a
nearly complete succession of the Notocene is included. The Clarentian
rocks in this area commonly commence with terrestrial coal-measures,
and volcanic rocks are well developed. The most complete and typical
succession is that of the Herring River, which will be considered first,
although it disturbs the geographical sequence of the account.

In the lower Herring River the unconformity of the Clarentian and
pre-Notocene rocks is well exposed. The latter consist of concretionary
(" cannon-ball ") sandstones and thin argillite bands, striking N. 15° W.,
with a very steep dip to the west. The Clarentian rocks strike, at the
base, N. 30° E., and dip 44° to the north-west — i.e., down-stream. The
Notocene series is folded into a syncline and anticline before reaching the
Quail Flat fault-line near the junction with the Clarence River, and the
syncline brings the Amuri limestone down to the river-level, thus separating
two exposures of the higher part of the Clarentian beds.

The lowest rocks are coal-measures, 50 ft. thick, forming cliffs of a
reddish colour. The series commences with a seam of lignite a few feet
thick, followed by carbonaceous shales, grits, sands, and ferruginous sand-
stones, with thin seams of lignite. Some of the sandstones and shales are
crowded with plant fossils. Then follows a series of volc;inic rocks about
320-340 ft. in thickness. Four well-marked lava-flows can be recognized,
but there may be more. The rocks have not been examined microscopic-
ally, but appear to be olivine basalts. The lowest lava is not columnar,
and is 60-70 ft. thick, and it is suceeded by more coal-measures, varying
from 7 ft. to 15 ft. in thickness. The second flow, which is coarsely porphy-
ritic, is columnar for the lower 20 ft.. passing into breccia for the upper 20 ft.
The third flow of fine-grained basalt is 15 ft. thick, and is columnar through-
out. The fourth flow lies 150 ft. farther up, and is about 50 ft. thick.
The outcrops of the interbedded rocks at river-level are covered by basalt
screes, but may be exposed on the higher slopes of the valley-sides. The
fourth lava is iminediately followed by mudstones.

Farther down the stream the section of the succeeding Clarentian beds
is far from continuous, as the banks on each side are much sli})ped,
probably owing to the predominance of loose sandy beds. Such rocks as
are exposed are mudstones, sandstones, sometimes with pebble-beds, and
a thick series of mudstones with yellow efflorescence in beds about 1 ft.
thick, alternating with soft sandstones in beds of 18 in. to 2 ft. thick.
Higher up in the succession the mudstones become more massive and the

320

Transactio7is.

sandstone intercalations disappear. Altogether there are probably over
1,000 ft. of strata between the top of the lava and the base of the Amuri
limestone. The uppermost 60 ft. consists below of 20 ft. of pale-green
sandstone, passing up into bright-green glauconitic sandstone, and finally
into hard glauconitic limestone. There is some appearance of uncon-
formity in the overlying Amuri limestone (c/. p. 328).

In the north-west wing of the anticline farther down the river the lowest
beds seen are about 200 ft. of sulphur mudstones. These are succeeded
by about 50 ft. of sulphur sands, of which the upper 15 ft. is glauconitic.

a

Fio. 5. — Junction of Clarentian and Amuri limestone, north-west wing of
anticline, Herring River, a, Amuri limestone; b, glauconitic sandstone;
c. mudstone ; d, brown glauconitic sandstone ; e, green glauconitic sand-
stones ; /, sulphur sands.

The latter bed is apparently truncated at a gentle angle and overlain
imconformably by a thin bed of mudstone, which in turn is followed con-
formably by a glauconitic sandstone, 10 ft. thick, and that by the Amuri
limestone. The cliff in which this section is exposed cannot be scaled, and
the ground slopes away steeply at the bottom, so that it was difficult to
be certain of the unconformity.

McKay recognized only tw^o " great sheets " of volcanic rock, and made
a collection of fossils from sandstones and pebble - beds resting on the
upper surface of the second sheet. The fossils determined by Woods were
Area {Bnrhatia) sp., Trigonia glyptica, T. meridana, Modiola haihourensis,
BeJemnites sxperstes. I did not recognize this bed, but a little way down
the river from the uppermost lava I picked up in the river-gravel a boulder
of conglomerate containing Trigonia glyptica.

The upper beds are described by McKay as " soft grey sandstones,
and black, sandy, sulphurous, micaceous beds, -with cone-in-cone con-
cretions, overlaid by greensands, which, associated with thin beds of volcanic

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence and U re V alley ><. 321

rock (on the north-east bank of the river only), underlie the Amuri lime-
stone."" These upper beds of volcanic rock I did not observe.

Quail Flat. — The Quail Flat fault runs from the mouth of the Herring
River for some distance along the bed of the Clarence River, then enters
the southern bank to pass though Quail Flat, crosses the river again at
the southern end, passes through two southerly projections of the north
bank, and finally again enters the north bank to run behind Red Hill,
where its presence was inferred by McKay. The base of the Notocene
rocks must be considerably folded longitudinally along this line, since at
Quail Flat and farther north-east only lower Clarentian rocks are involved
at approximatelv the same height as that at which the Weka Pass stone
occurs only two miles to the south-west.

The Clarentian rocks are exposed on the southern bank of the Clarence
River near the upper and lower ends of Quail Flat, the intervening spaces
on the bank being occupied by pre-Notocene rocks. At the upper end
of the terrace the pre-Notocene rocks for some hundreds of yards are
greywackes and thin-bedded argillites striking N. 30° W. and dipping
nearly vertically. Farther up the river conglomerates appear, the line
of junction striking N. 65° E.. and dipping apparently vertically. The
conglomerates consist mainly of rather decomposed, well-rounded basalt
pebbles, with a greasy matrix recalling the fossiliferous tuft' of Limestone
Creek, Awatere Valley. They contain pieces of carbonized fossil wood.
Up the river these are succeeded by coal-measures striking north-east,
dipping 58° to the north-west, and consisting of thin-bedded mudstones,
carbonaceous shales, and sandstones, with elliptical masses of ferruginous
sandstone. These rocks strike south-west into a projection of the terrace-
bank, and the continuation of the succession is then obscured for about
100 yards. At the end of the projection a volcanic rock appears, and this
is followed by a succession of greasy conglomerates and coal-measures
similar to the last. It seems probable that the junction between the first-
desc rilled conglomerate and the pre-Notocene rocks is a fault.

McKay's description of this outcrop is more detailed, and he mentions
no break in the succession. The first-mentioned exposure of coal-measures
he describes as followed by thick beds of volcanic rock, divided by tufas,
conglomerates, and shales, the highest stream of volcanic rock being
followed by conglomerates, grits, sandstones, &c. From the beds between
the first and second volcanic rocks he obtained leaf-fossils and fresh-water
shells, and underneath the higher stream some very fine specimens of
dicotyledonous leaves.

At the lower (down-stream) end of Quail Flat the pre-Notocene rocks
are concretionary (" cannon-ball ") sandstones with thin argillite bands,
striking N. 20° E., and dipping 40" to the east-south-east at the lower
junction with the Clarentian rocks. The latter series commences with
mudstones and lignite seams, striking N. 20° E., and dipping 60° to the
west-north-west. The higher beds, exposed up-stream, are sandstones,
followed by more lignites. Higher up the succession is obscured by slips,
but pre-Notocene rocks appear in cliffs 200 yards farther up the river, so
that presumably the fault-line closing the sequence here enters the river-
terrace.

This exposure was evidently much clearer at the time of McKay's visit,

for he describes a number of beds I did not observe. " At the eastern end

of the section the lowest bed is a soft greensandstone, which is followed

by grey sandstones, with irregular beds of coaly shale. These latter bed?-'

11— Trans.

322 Transactions.

contain elli])tic masses and irregular bands of ironstone, which are full of
plant-remains. A very large dicotyledonous leaf, with Dmnmara leaves,
Taetiiopteris, &c., occui- in the ironstones and in the sandstones and sandy
shales which overlie the lo\Yer beds. Casts of trees 18 in. to 2 ft. in
diameter lie at the foot of the cliff along the river-bank, and these can be
seen in situ surrounded by a thin layer of briglit coal. Hard calcareous
sandstones overlie these beds, with which are layers of ironstone, and in
these beds dicotyledonous leaves and large specimens of Taeniopteris are
abundant. About 100 ft. from the lowest beds of the series fine splinterv
black shales are crowded with long slender leaves having parallel venation ;
and in these beds and a greensandstone band parting them into an upper
and lower division fresh-water shells, as casts of Cydas and one or two
species of univalves, are found in great abundance. Fine-grained grey
and gritty sandstone follows, with soft sandy beds between, and in these,
besides the plants already named, Pohjpodimn (?) occurs in fronds of large
size and well preserved in the sandstone beds. For the next 1.50 ft. the
beds overlying are soft and hard sandstones alternating, sands and sandy
shales, and small nests of coal ; and, beyond these, 50 ft. or 60 ft. of
dark-green volcanic rock separate this lower part of the section from the
higher beds, which are much the same in character " (1886, p. 102).

A'ortJi Bank, Claie)ice Biver, opposite Tijtler Stream. — Owing to a bend
in the Clarence River the fault strikes across the river below Quail Flat
and passes through a projection of the northern bank, on the end of which
a small ])atch of Clarentian coal-measures is preserved. I did not cross the
river to observe these, but McKav has given a section of them under the
heading of " Clarence Crossing, Quail Flat" (McKay, 1886, p. 101).

McKay describes in general terms a similar outcrop three miles below
Quail Flat, presumably also on the north bank of the river.

Red Hill. — According to McKay's description, the Quail Flat fault runs
on the north-west side of Red Hill, which is composed of lower Clarentian
rocks, while a narrow strip of pre-Notocene rocks occurs to their south-
east side, along the banks of the Clarence River The lowest Clarentian
rocks he describes as gritty sandstones and pebble-beds without distinct
fossils. Next follow sandstones and grey, brown, or dark-coloured shales
with plant-remains, not very well preserved, and thin coal-seams, 1 ft. to
18 in. in thickness. From a sandstone under the lowest coal-seam two
fresh-water shells were collected. The succeeding beds are grey and soft
yellow sandstones, with dark shales and plant-remains, including dicotyle-
donous leaves, a narrow leaf with parallel venation, and four or five species
of fern. These are in turn followed by basaltic rock-tufas and sandstone
conglomerates, alternating in an irregular manner, and finally by sand-
stones and pebble-beds, which in the north-eastern end of Red Hill are
calcareous and contain concretions 1 ft. to 15 in. in diameter.

Clareuce River helow Bluff River. — There is a very considerable develop-
ment of Notocene rocks from Bluff Hill across the Clarence River to
Limestone Hill, which has not been satisfactorily explored either by McKay
or myself. As seen from the north-east end of tiie valley Bluft' Hill seems
to form a syncline, nnd this impression is confirmed by the outcrop of
lower Clarentian rocks on the north-west side of the Notocene outlier at
the mouth of the Bluff River and north-west of Limestone Hill, where in
a small creek I observed coal-2iieasures similar to those of the Herring
River, overlaid by volcanic rocks. McKay (1886, p. 68) also states that
the Buller series — i.e., the coal-measures — underlies the first great sheet

THO>rsox. — Geolocpj of Middle Clart7ice and Ure Valleys. 323

of volcanic rocks in Limestone Hill. Unfortujiately, neither here nor in
the Clarence River was the base of the series observed. If this great
outcrop of Notocene rocks terminated to the north-west along a fault-line
one would not expect Clarentian rocks except along its south-eastern
boundary.

There must be a nearly complete section through this Notocene outcrop
where it is crossed by the Clarence River, but as the river here flows in
a gorge it cannot be closely followed. McKay describes the section as
follows : *' The lowest beds are sandstones and conglomerates, containing
marine fossils. . . . These fossiliferous sandstones are overlaid by a
considerable thickness of volcanic rocks, varying from 50 ft. to 200 ft.,
and these in turn by sandstones, conglomerates, and shales, followed by
a second series of volcanic rocks overlaid by the limestones and grey marls
closing the sec|uence."

The fossils collected by McKay were determined by Woods as follows :
Trigonia gh/ptica, " Modiola " kaikourensis, Thracia s]i., and Belemnites
supersles.

The base of tlie Clarentian is not here exposed, and it is cpiite possible
that coal-measures are present. The lowest rocks I observed were grey
sandstones about 26-30 ft. thick, with occasional pebble-beds, striking
north, and dipping 25° to the east. These are followed by about 40 ft.
of thin-bedded sandstones alternating with mudstones, and then about
300 ft. of massive sandstones with pebble - beds which are sometimes
fossiliferous. The pebbles consist of quartzite, greywacke, grey gritty
sandstones, jasperoid c|uartz, and occasionally quartz porphyry. The fossils
collected included a belemnite, Trigonia gh/ptica, " Modiola " kaikourensis,
Thracia sp., AporrJum s]). and other gasteropods, and Bentalium sp.
Evidently these are the beds from which McKay collected.

These beds are succeeded by a fine-grained basalt, here 50-60 ft. thick,
with large amygdaloidal masses of calcite containing quartz crystals in
druse cavities. This is separated from an upper lava or series of lavas
by 30--40 ft. of sandstones. The upper lava is scoriaceous at tlie base,
and porphyritic. Its thickness could not be exactly estimated, owing to
faults and slips, but appeared to be upwards of 200 ft. It is followed by
a bed of mudstone, about 20 ft. in thickness, fiUl of volcanic material, and
this again is followed by a third lava, fine-grained and more decomposed
and at least 20 ft. thick. The dip of the beds at this point has flattened
or appears to have flattened owing to the river flowing along the strike.
The next-higher beds appear to be soft sandstones with ironstone con-
cretions, dipping steeply. There appears to be a great thickness of these
beds and further lavas before the limestone is reached, but the section was
not followed.

On the opposite side of the Clarence River, in the Red Bluff, the section
is similar except that the third band of lava was not observed. The top
of the second lava is followed by upwards of 40 ft. of mudstones and thin-
bedded sandstones.

The Amur i Limestone and Weka Pass Slo)te.

The rocks in the Middle Clarence Valley termed collectively the Amuri
limestone are lithologically similar to the limestone of Amuri RlufT, and
occupy a somewhat similar stratigraphical position, but they have a very
much greater thickness and probably represent a greater range of time.
Geographically they are nearly continuous with the limestone of Kaikoura

11*

324 Transactions.

Peninsula by way of the Front Range at Kekerangu and the Puhipuhi
Mountains, and there can be no doubt that the Amuri limestone of Amuri
Blufi correlates with some part, but it is almost certainly only the upper
part, of the liniestone of the Clarence Valley. It would therefore be more
appropriate to name the formation from its greatest development in the
Clarence Valley, but the name '' Amuri limestone " is too well established
to be displaced.

McKay correlated the uppermost part of the limestone formation in
the Clarence Valley with the Weka Pass stone, describing the rocks as
calcareous sandstones. Although in the north-east part of the valley
there appears little justification for any such distinction, in the Herring
River beds of greensand with phosphatic nodules and volcanic tuffs separate
an upper, light-brown limestone from the lower, white Amuri limestone.
Everywhere in North Canterbury and at Amuri Bluff and Kaikoura
Peninsula a bed of phosphatic greensand or glauconitic limestone separates
the Weka Pass stone from the Amuri limestone (c/. Speight and Wild,
1918), and it seems probable that the phosphatic band in the Herring
River represents the same horizon and that the upper limestone must
correlate with the Weka Pass stone.

The Amuri limestone in the Clarence Valley, excluding the flint-beds,
consists mainly of two types of limestone, the one a snow-white, very
fine-grained, hard, almost flinty rock, composed almost solely of carbonate
of lime and silica ; the other an equally fine-grained but somewhat softer,
argillaceous limestone, also light-coloured but not so white, and very often
with a greenish tinge. The former rock forms thick strata, and also
alternates in thin beds, up to 1 ft. thick, with the latter, which is less
commonly found in thick beds. The former may for convenience be
termed the chalky type, and the latter the marly type.

The base of the limestone formation is in most exposures formed of
beds consisting wholly or partly of black flint, but in the upper part of the
flint-beds the flints are often light-coloured. Where the beds are partly
of flint, the latter form large lenticules and the outer part consists of
flinty limestone of the chalky type. In many places, however, the outer
part is grey and crystalline, the crystals consisting of dolomite set in a
matrix of flint. I have described the peculiar nature of these beds fully
in my former paper (1916). Flints also occur sporadically in the upper
parts of the limestone, but are not abundant and are not aggregated into
definite rows.

Mead Gorge. — The greatest thickness of the Amuri limestone is that of
the Mead Gorge, Avhere I estimated it as follows :-

O '

Thickness

in Feet.

Argillaceous limestone (Weka Pass stone)

.. 150

Marly limestone . .

.. 400

Chalky limestone

. . 280

Marly limestone . .

.. 420

Chalky limestone

90

Chalky limestone and flint-beds

.. 1,410

2,750

The dip of the various beds is constantly to the north-west, at angles
varying from 45° to 70°, the average angle being between 50° and 55°.
The junction with the underlying Clarentian beds is not exposed. The

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence and lire Valleys.

325

lowest flint-beds seen are of a lenticular character, in layers of 8 in.
to 18 in., the beds swellinsj ont around the flint lenticules in such a
way that the surface of the beddins-planes is irregular (see Tliomson.
1916, pi. ii, iii). The outer layers are composed of crystalline dolomite.
Higher up the flint-beds become less lenticular and the exteriors are hard
chalky limestone, layers of which also appear between the layers contain-
ing flint. Then follows a considerable thickness of hard chalkv limestone
with flint-beds subordinate, and finally another series consisting dominantly
of flint-beds, the top being 1,410 ft. above the lowest observed beds. Above
this flint is of relatively rare occurrence, but is by no means absent from
the chalky limestones. The marly limestones in part consist of the thin-
bedded alternations of chalky and marly limestones above described. No
traces of fossils were observed in any of the above beds.

Limhurne Gorge. — The Amuri limestone in the left branch of the Limburne
consists of flint-beds at the base, then hard chalky limestone, marlv lime-
stone with chalky bands, and hard chalky limestone above. The uppermost
beds are obscured by slips, and the top band of marly limestone and the
Weka Pass stone are probably }»resent, as in the Mead and the Dee.

Dee Gorge. — The flint-beds and the chalky and marly limestones succeed
one another in the same order as in the Limburne and the Mead, and the
thickness is probably about the same. The uppermost limestone, the Weka
Pass stone, is a grey-white argillaceous limestone, without the tvpical
cuboidal jointing of the Amuri limestone. No fossils were observed.

The flint lenticules at the base are ])resent in beds averaging 8 in. thick,
but some are as much as 2 ft. thick where the lenticules occur. The
crystalline dolomitic rock is not abundant, and is most developed where
the flint lenticules are thickest and most irregular. Tlie great majoritv
of the flint lenticules in the lower beds, and all in the upper beds, are not
accompanied by crystalline exteriors, but by hard, flinty, chalky limestone.
Mr. B. ('. Aston has made the following analyses of specimens from this
localit}^ : —

Laboratory
Number.

Nature of Sample.

SiOa-

FeaOa

and

Al.Oa.

CaCOs.

MgCOj.

^•205.

779a . .

Flinty portion of lenticule

92-41

2-95

2-36

2-03

Trace.

779b . .

Near middle, carbonates largely
removed by weathering

92-52

3-25

1-86

1-77

Trace.

779c . .

Exterior, also much weathered

81-97

3-70

6-53

7-61

Trace.

780

Dense bluish limestone with
minute carbonate crystals

32-73

1-69

60-42

5-26

Trace.

78lA . .

Flinty portion of lenticule

88-12

3-48

5-07

2-75

Nil.

78lB ..

Intermediate portion of lenticule

58-15

415

30-98

6-42

Trace.

781c ..

Exterior of lenticule . .

77-82

3-93

11-49

5-58

Trace.

Chalh Range. — McKay estimates the thickness of the Amuri limestone
and Weka Pass stone in the Chalk Range at 2,500 ft., of which the lower
1,000 ft. consists of flint-beds. The middle beds he describes as soft chalk
marls, followed by more compact flaggy limestones, whicli in the liighest
peak of the range contain beds of a green colour. Above these are beds
resejnbling the Cobden lijuestone, witli large radiating fan-shaped fucoids.
The latter is followed by a calcareous sandstone, the Weka Pass stone,
and these two uppermost beds contain layers of greensand and quartz
sand alternating witli the more calcareous strata. It should be observed

326 Transacfions.

that McKay described the Weka Pass stone in the Mead and Dee Gorges
also as a calcareous sandstone, but it is certainly more argillaceous than
arenaceous in these localities.

I observed the base of the flint-beds in Sawpit Gully. The junction
with the Clarentian appears to be perfectly conformable, though quite
sharp. The lowest flint-beds are dark throughout, and contain no dolo-
mitic exteriors. The up])ermost Clarentian beds contain mucli pyrite in
nodules, and show a yellow efflorescence. Microscopic examination of the
lowest flint-beds suggest that they are replacing rocks in part clastic.

Isolaled Hill Creek.— In the Ure Gorge the sequence of the various beds
of the Amuri limestone is difficult to interpret, owing to the complex folding
and faulting that has taken place. Tlio flint-beds at the base are, however,
well exposed in the Isolated Hill f'reek, which has cut a gorge through
them (Plates XXVII, XXVIII). They appear to be much thinner than in
the Chalk Eange, and not much more than 500 ft. in thickness. The junction
with the underlving Clarentian rocks is well exposed, and is not only con-
formable, but appears to show a transition between the two groups of
rocks. Near the base black flints in hand-size nodules and lenticules lie
in a coarsely crvstalline dolomitic matrix, and the flints themselves contain
many crvstals of dolomite. Followed downwards, the flints contain fewer
and fewer crystals, and at the same time become less pure and lighter
in colour till they can hardly be distinguished from hardened mudstone,
while the matrix also alters gradually into a grey micaceous mudstone.
The above transition takes place within 2 ft. of rock. Forty feet below
this transition there is a thin layer of im]uire flints and dolomite, the
crvstals of dolomite being relatively large. In the intermediate 40 ft. of
mudstone there are large concretionary masses, 3 ft. in length and 18 in.
across the bedding, consisting of lenticules of black flint in a crystalline
dolomitic matrix.

It might be argued that the flint is secondary and has invaded the
uppermost beds of the Clarentian. obscuring the true junction. But even
if the flint-dolomite is secondary it is replacing calcareous rocks, and the
transition in this case is from Clarentian mudstone to limestone by the
intermediarv of calcareous concretions, and I see no escape from the
conclusion that the Amuri limestone is here conformable to the Clarentian.

Upper Ure V((lle>/. — In the upper inverted limb of the overturned
syncline behind the Chalk Range the Amuri limestone forms a hogback
ridge, cut through on the northern side of the Ure River from Limestone
Hill to the White Bluffs by several goi'ges. From the smaller width and
height of this hogback riclge it appears at first sight that the limestone
is here considerably thinner than in the Chalk Range, on the lower limb
of the synclinal, t observed the basal beds, here lying uppermost, in the
large tributarv from the Blue Mountain, but could not penetrate down
the gorge to observe the upper beds. The beds are here striking in a
north-east direction, and dipping at angles of 40° to 60° to the north-west.
The sequence wiH be described as if the beds were not overturned. The
Clarentian mudstones are followed perfectly conformably by thin lenticular
flint-beds with mudstone intercalations, passing u]) into greener fiints with
dolomite crystals, the whole being some hundreds of feet thick. These
are followed by hard chalky limestone with reddish-brown blobs of flint,
also several hundr(>d feet thick, and these again by limestone with black
flint lenticules. beyond which the section could not be followed. The total
flint-beds do not seem nuich inferior in thickness to those of the Chalk

Trans. X.Z. Inst.. Vol. LI.

Plate XXVIII.

[B. C. Asian, photo.

Isolated Hill from Isolated Hill Creek. The light-coloured rocks in the foreground are
Clarentian mndstoncs, the steep cliffs in the middle distance consist of flint-beds,
and the higher parts of the mountain are Amuri limestone.

Face p. 326.]

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plate XXIX.

.*

Ai-^M-:.,.

[C. A. Cotton, photo.

Fig. 1. — The ridge between the Dee and the Limburne as seen from the south-
west. The monochnal ridge of Amuri hmestone forms Limestone Hill
on the right and in the centre the great Marlljorough conglomerate
outcrops.

^^"^%:^^^#;^,;

. 'X.- *.

■ >'.vv\> *?>*■■••■ --^i

«

«."^:

""v

:."4.'^}'%^y^-,#^

[C. A. Cotton, photo.

Fig. 2. — Great Marlborough conglomerate in the Dee Gorge, showing a coarse
band in the middle. View looking south-west.

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence and TJre Valleys. 327

Range, and it is probable that the hogback is formed of these alone, and
that the softer marly limestones succeeding do not form a salient in the
relief, so that the total thickness of the whole series may be equal to that
of the Chalk Kange.

Middle Ure Valley. — In the Urc Valley above Waterfall Creek the river
runs obliquelv across the strike, and the following rocks were observed
in ascending order : (1) Hard mudstones, (2) hard sandstones, (3) gap in
succession, (4) thick red decomposed volcanic lava, (5) gaj) in successon,
(6) limestojies. much folded and puckered, with dip and strike constantly
changing, forming tlie river-banks as far as the Ure Gorge. Fi-om some
green bands in the lower end of the gorge I collected sjiecimens of Teredo
tubes indistinguishable from those of Teredo heaphyi Zittel.

From the section in the Blue Mountain Stream which enters the Ure
along the red volcanic rock, it a]ipears probable that the above succession
is reversed. The lava is in this stream followed (apparently) by white
mudstones or marls with poor plant fossils, and these by about 150 ft. of
limestone, mostly a white or reddish, fine-grained, rather chalky variety,
with oiven bands and much tufaceous material. The limestone is in turn
followed by sheared mudstones or muddy sandstones, and may be separated
from the latter by a fault. Then follows a further series of similar limestone
overlaid bv the Clarentian rocks already described, with ]:)ebbly mudstone
near the apparent top.

If, as I suppose, the succession is here reversed, the volcanic lava follows
some part of the Amuri limestone, and quite probably occupies the same
position as the tuffs in the Herring River section — i.e.. between the Amuri
limestone and Weka Pass stone ; but some earlier volcanic activity must
have occurred to account for the tufaceous bands in the Amuri limestone
itself.

Branch, Dart, and. Muzzle Rivers. — -McKay has not made many observa-
tions of the Amuri limestone between the Dee and Bluff Rivers, but states
that the flint-beds become much thinner south-west of the Dee, have dis-
appeared altogether in the Dart, and are not found farther to the south-
west. I observed these beds, however, in the Bluff River and Gentle Annie
Stream, so that it is improbable that they are totally absent in the inter-
vening terrain. McKay states that the Branch Gorge is impassable, but
estimates the thickness of the limestones as 1,200 ft. in the Dart Gorge and
not much less in the Muzzle, though in the latter it is repeated by faulting.
In the Muzzle he states tliat '' there is evidence that the higher beds [i.e.,
the Cobden limestone and Weka Pass stone] are gradually encroaching on
the lower and more characteristic Amuri limestone beds," and mentions
finding in the former fragments of a fibrous plicated shell " which probably
belong to Inoceramus.'"

Bluff River. — McKay's two descriptions (1886, pp. 78 and 97) of the
Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone in this section do not tally alto-
gether with my observations. The highest bed is. he states, a calcareous
sandstone, 15-25 ft. thick, containing various species of Pecten, including
P. zitteli, and overlies soft chalk-marls. The lower beds he describes as
" a compact fine-grained rock," and he states that '" in its higher beds
the harder limestone alternates with soft marl}^ beds, and bands of hard
calcareous greensandstone are of frequent occurrence. ... A little to
the south-west the Amuri limestone rests on the saurian beds as a gritty,
impure limestone."

328 Transactions.

The lowest beds I observed were about 40 ft. of much-contorted flint-
beds, dipping to tlie north-west. Above these the section is obscure, but
sandy mudstones were observed. It is possible and probable that the
upper limit of the flint-beds is a fault and that the sandy mudstones are
Clarentian. A little farther up the river, on the western bank, the main
exposure of the Amuri limestone series occurs. The lowest beds seen are
flint-beds, about 100 ft. in thickness, in beds of from 3 in. to 6 in., wuth
black flints with grey exteriors in the lower part and white flints with
hard chalky exteriors in the upper part. The upper beds are separated
by muddy, glauconitic partings 2-3 in. thick. From these I obtained two
brachiopod specimens, neither specifically determinable, although one was
a species of Terehratulina. The above beds were overlain by hard chalky
limestone with white flints, and from this specimens of Teredo were
obtained. To this succeeds about 10 ft. of calcareous greensandstone with
small pebbles and pyrite concretions. This is overlain by 12 ft. of hard
chalky or flinty limestone with muddy, glauconitic ])artings, and this in
turn is followed by another 10 ft. or thereabouts of calcareous greensand-
stone, greatly contorted. Then succeed upwards of 30 ft. of thin-bedded
alterations of chalky and marly limestone. Above this the section was
obscured by slips, and the chalk marls and Weka Pass stone mentioned by
McKay could not be observed.

Gentle Annie Stream. — The upjier outcrop of flint-beds above described
in the Bluft" River can be traced across country to the Gentle Annie Stream,
where they are underlain by Clarentian muddy sandstones. The limestone
series forms a regular syncline on the north-east bank of the stream, but an
absolutely continuous succession cannot be observed. The fljnt-beds are
followed by a hard rubbly limestone, which is also probably flinty. This
appears to be followed by a hard glauconitic limestone about 30 ft. thick,
which contains in the middle a layer with rounded masses of white lime-
stone somewhat similar to the chalky limestone but probably concretionary.
The next-higher bed observed is hard chalky limestone, and this is succeeded
by alternations of marly and chalky limestone forming the core of the
syncline.

Bluff Hill and Limestone Hill. — The sequence of beds in the Aumri
limestone of Bluff Hill and Limestone Hill has not been made out. The
extent and thickness of the outcrops make it probable that the formation
is of considerable thickness, perhaps comparable to that in the Mead area.
McKay states that calcareous sandstone and indurated fucoidal chalk-
greensands abounding in fossil shells form the higher and middle parts of
Limestone Hill.

Herring River. — Notocene beds are thrown into a broad syncline and
anticline in the Herring River, but the beds above the Amuri limestone are
denuded from the axis of the syncline. and are exposed only on the two
sides of the anticline in a tributary entering the river on the left side.
Time permitted of the detailed examination of only two exposures.

On the south-east side of the syncline the lower beds of the Amuri
limestone are seen resting on Clarentian calcareous greensandstones with
apparent unconformity which is probably real (fig. 6). The greensand-
stones dip regularly to the north-west, and are truncated above at a gentle
angle by a surface which has also an apparent dip to the north-west. The
succeeding limestone consists of marly limestone with numerous thin alterna-
tions of chalky limestone, which become closer together in the upper part,
the whole as exposed being between 50 ft. and 100 ft. thick. The lowest

Thomson. — (rioloiin of Middle Ctartnce and Ure Valleys.

329

beds of the limestone follow the truncated surface regularly, but a few feet
up the beds are sharply folded in the manner shown in fig. 6. It is, of
course, possible that the surface of separation is not a true unconformity,
but a fault or thrust-plane ; but I observed no sign of crushing or slicken-
sides along the surface.

On the north-west wing of the anticline, in a clif^" some distance above
the river-bed and about half a mile above the junction with the Clarence
River, there is a good ex])osure of beds from the u|)per Clarentian to the
Weka Pass stone. The apparently unconformable nature of the junction
has already been described (p. 320). The Amuri limestone is about 200 ft.
thick, the lower 150 ft. consisting of a thin-bedded alternation of argillaceous
shalv limestone with harder white bands which are slightly glauconitic.

Fig. 6. — Diagram of junction of Amuri limestone and Clarentian greensandstones,
south-eastern wing of syneline, Herring River. Only a few of the alternations
of chalky and marly limestone can be shown, a, tussock; b, talus; c, sands;
d, calcareous greensandstone ; e. Amuri limestone.

while the upper 50 ft. is a glauconitic calcareous mudstone. This is suc-
ceeded conformably by 4 ft. of bright-green glauconitic calcareous sand-
stone with dark phosphatic nodules, and this in turn passes without a
break into a dirty brown-green greensand. Both the latter beds contain
Oamaruian fossils sparingly.

A few inches of nodular rock follows, very similar to the phosphatic
greensandstone separating the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone in
the Weka Pass. This is in turn succeeded by a thin bed of limestone,
15 in. thick, containing small green fragments which appear to be of
volcanic origin. The next bed is a mudstone, about 6 in. thick, with
numerous '' fucoids," and above this is another bed of limestone, about
6 in. thick, with green fragments. Above this comes about 6 ft. of fine-
grained basic tuffs alternating with thin brown calcareous sandstones. The
next 10 ft. is occupied by dark tuft's ; on these rest another series, about
5 ft. thick, of limestones with green fragments, in beds of about 1 ft. thick,
separated by soft shaly material. Finally there is another 4 ft. of dark
tufts, passing up gradually into a massive limestone some hundreds of feet
thick. The latter was not examined in detail here. On the opposite side

330 Transactions.

of the river, lower down, it is seen to consist of various types of calcareous
sandstone and argillaceous limestone, weathering to light-brown cliffs, and
is separated into two parts by a thick band of mudstones very similar to
the " grey marls."' The strike at the middle of the bend round to the
Clarence Eiver is N. 15° E., dip 45° to the west. At the junction with
the Clarence the strike is N. 50° E., and the dip 60° to the north-west. The
limestone continues down the Clarence River for about 300 yards, and is
here an argillaceous limestone with numerous partings, some of which con-
tain dicotyledonous leaf impressions. Marine fossils occur sparingly, and
are chiefly Oamaruian moUusca.

Age and Origin of the Amuri Limestone. — The only fossils found in the
Amuri limestone of the Middle Clarence Valley are the Teredo tubes in
chalky limestone from the Bluff River and from the Ure Gorge, and the
indeterminable brachiopods found in the glauconitic partings in the flint-
beds of the Bluff River. The Teredo tubes are indistinguishable from
those of the Oamaruian Teredo heapJigi Hutton, but it is doubtful whether
these deserve specific recognition, and fossils of such a nature are certainly
insufficient for purposes of correlation. Probably by renewed collecting
determinable brachiopods may be obtained froni the Bluff River flint-beds
which will suffice to fix the age of these beds. Meanwhile, in the lack
of direct palaeontological evidence, the determination of the age of the
limestones must remain a matter of inference. A lower limit of age is
fixed by the underlying fossiliferous Clarentian mudstones of Sawpit Gully,
which contain middle Cretaceous fossils up to within a few feet of their
junction with the flint-beds. An upper limit is fixed by the overlying
phosphatic greensandstones and Weka Pass stone of the Herring River,
both of which contain Oamaruian fossils of at oldest Oligocene age, and,
in other areas where these horizons are unfossiliferous, bv the still hisher
"grey marls," which are Oamaruian.

Woods (1917, p. 2) has argued from the facts that the Amuri lime-
stone in North Canterbury and East Marlborough is always overlain by
Oamaruian (Miocene) rocks, and is underlain in the former area by Piri-
pauan (Senonian) beds but in the latter area by Clarentian (Albian)
beds, that the limestone must be unconformable both to the Piripauan
and Clarentian. and that it is probably Eocene.

In 1916, before I had visited the Herring River and Bluft' River sec-
tions, I discussed the lithology, thickness, distribution, and stratigraphical
relations of the Amuri limestone, including the flint-beds, and suggested
that it was in large part a chemical deposit. I stated mv belief that it
was everywhere conformable to the underlying rocks, ranging in age from
Piripauan to Oamaruian in North Canterbury, and from Clarentian to
Oamaruian in the Middle Clarence area, and that the flint-beds represented
a definite horizon absent from the southern area. The discovery by
Speight and myself of fossils in an interbedded tuft' near the top of the
limestone of the Trelissick Basin proved the Lower Oamaruian age of the
top of the limestone in this locality. A corollary of the conformity with
the underlying beds, by which the conclusion may be tested, is that the
underlying rocks of the intermediate district — viz., the Puhipuhi Moun-
tains— where the limestone is intermediate in thickness, must at the top be
intermediate in age between Piripauan and Clarentian. Unfortunatelv, a
spell of bad weather prevented my attempted examination of the Puhipuhi
Mountains in 1916, and no further opportunity of exploring this area has
presented itself. Meanwhile the discovery of the probable unconformity

Thomson. — (hohxjn of Middle (Jlarence and. Ure Vallei/.<. 331

under the limestone in the Herring River area throws new light on the
problem.

In 1917 Park suggested that the fossils foujid by Speight and myself
in the Trelissick Basin, and earlier reports by von Haast and himself of
Recent brachiopods from the " concretionary greensands "' in the Waipara
district, proved that the latter were uiiconformal^le to tlie Senonian
" saurian beds," and that they, with the overlying Amuri limestone, were
Oamaruian. In the same year I showed that the top of the " concretionary
greensands "' was Senonian, and that if any disconformity exists — for there
is no unconformity of the beds — it should be looked for above the " con-
cretionary greensands " in the dark carbonaceous mudstone into which the
Amuri limestone passes down. Probably a collection of Foraminifera
could be made from this mudstone which might settle its age if a large
enough fauna were found. With regard to the supposed Wahlheiniia letdi-
cularis from the "" concretionary greensand," unfortunately the specimens
do not appear to be preserved, and I have searched this horizon in vai)i
for further specimens. No reliance is to be placed on the identification,
for determinations of brachiopod species even by Hutton as late as 1904
were very unreliable, and Neothyris lenticidaris does not occur fossil below
the \Vanga)niian, and even there it is not at all common. The only Neofhijris
species known to me from the Oamaraian is Neotht/ris novara (von Ihering).

The problem of the age of the Amuri limestone is closely bound up
with that of its mode of deposition. In 1916 I pointed out that the
hard, chalky type consists pi-edominantly of exceedingly fine-grained calcite,
in which matrix isolated but unbroken tests of Foraminifera, chiefly
Globigerina, occur sporadically, but skeletons of siliceous organisms appear
to be absent. That they were formerly present but have disappeared
by solution seemed improbable, since there are no spaces of dissolution
such as exist in the English Chalk ; and although the pressures to which
the limestone has almost everywhere been subjected might be considered
capable of closing such spaces, this could hardly have happened without
the crushing of the delicate tests of Globigerina. Although the fact that
the flint-beds are thickest where the limestone is thickest would find an
easy explanation were the flint the result of a downward migration of silica
derived from siliceous organisms in the overh'ing limestone, the absence
of casts of these organisms seemed to prevent the acceptance of such
hypothesis, and I put forward the suggestion that the silica of the flint
and also the dolomite frec|uently found with it were chemically precipitated
and that the limestone itself was in large part a chemical deposit, but in
part composed of foraminiferal tests settling gently into the chemically
formed calcareous mud. At the same time I stated, " Much of the above
is speculative, but will serve a useful purpose if it calls attention to the
peculiar nature of the Amuri limestone, the flint-beds, and the sulphur
sands, and proA'okes an alternative explanation." This hope has been
partially realized by the observations published by Marshall (1916, 1917)
and by Speight and Wild (1918) on the presence and origin of the flint,
but as none of these writers appears to have considered the possibility of
chemical precipitation of any of the silica or carbonates of the limestone,
and as none of them has discussed the subject from the point of view of
the whole problem, it seems desirable to restate it in the light of the
evidence now obtainable.

Marshall (1916) agrees with me that by far the greater part of the
Amuri limestone over the whole of North Canterbury and Marlborough

332 Transactions.

consists of very fine-grained calcite, while at Weka Pass the chambers of
Glohigerina, which are generally isolated, are fairly numerous. He states
that Radiolaria are not infrequent at Amnri Bluff, and mentions sponge-
spicules and several examples of a radiolarian at Kaikoura. In the highly
siliceous and flinty varieties at Ward and the Ure River no remains of
siliceous organisms could be distinguished, but he considered it probable
that they had been dissolved. • No explanation of the fine-grained calcite
base was presented, but he considered the whole rock a pelagic deposit
accumulated from the remains of marine organisms.

Marshall in 1917, after the discovery of calcified sponge-spicules in the
hydraulic limestone of the Kaipara and Whangarei districts, re-examined
specimens from Ward. He considers it ])robable that diatoms and Radio-
laria are present, though much calcified and much destroyed by solution.
and sees in these the origin of the silica of the flint-beds. His argument
may be fairly summed up as follows : By far the greater part of the lime-
stone consists of very fine-grained calcite, but chambers of Glohigerina,
which are generally isolated, are fairly numerous. The rock is therefore
a Glohigerina ooze. Radiolaria are not infrequent at Amuri Bluff and
Kaikoura, sponge-spicules occur at Amuri Bluff, and it is probable that
calcified diatoms and Radiolaria are present at Ward. Therefore the
flint in the limestone is probably derived from the skeletons of siliceous
organisms. This is rendered the more probable from the occurrence of
diatomaceous and radiolarian ooze in limestones of similar age and character
in the North of x\uckland and at Oamaru. The argument would gain
strength by the omission of the diatomaceous earth at Oamaru, which few
if any other New Zealand geologists will admit to be of the same age as
the Amuri limestone. The facts adduced by Marshall are consistent with
the conclusions he derives from them, except that the fine-grained matrix
of the limestone is not explained ; but they are also consistent with my
suggestion of chemical precipitation of carbonates and silica during the
formation of the Amuri limestone. All that is necessary to add to my
account is the presence of Radiolaria and diatoms in the postulated shower
of Foraminifera which helped to form the limestone, the presence of some
siliceous sponges, and some secondary migration of the silica.

Speight and Wild (1918) record the presence of flint both above and
below the phosphatic layer at Kaikoura and Amuri Bluff, and conclude
that its presence cannot be regarded as a criterion of age. Flint in sitv
just below the nodular layer occasionally shows burrows filled with glau-
conitic material, and so the authors remark that, unless the boring animals
were able to penetrate flint itself, the flint must have been precipitated
subsequently to the boring of the limestone. I have not claimed that
the presence of flint in the Amuri limestone is a criterion of age, pointing
out that small flints similar in mode of occurrence to those of the English
Chalk are common in the limestone at Amuri Bluff", which I considered
as much younger than the lower part of the limestone at Coverham. What
I did suggest was that the massive flint-beds occurring at the base of the
limestone from the Puhipuhi Mountains northwards occupied a definite
stratigraphical horizon, and Speight and Wild's observations throw no
light on this point. In suggesting that the silica of the flints was deposited
chemically I did not claim that there was no secondary migration of the
silica. In case I did not make this clear, I wish now to state that I
consider that both the flint of the flint-beds and the sporadic flints occurring
at higher horizons are concretionary in their nature, and are the result of

Thomson. — Genloyii of Middh- Clarence and U re Valleji^. 333

the redeposition of silica originally scattered throughout the beds in which
the flint occurs. The fact that the evenness of the bedding-planes gives
place to rolls around the largest flint lenticules seems to prove this for the
flint-beds. The structure of the flint-dolomite exteriors is also more in
accord with a secondary than with an original deposition.

Cotton (1918), in examining by the deductive method the kind of
deposits to be found in the continental shelf, showed that with advances
and retreats of a subsiding shelf corresponding to fluctuations in the ratio
of waste-supply to rate of subsidence there may be intercalations of foreset
and pelagic beds in the topset beds towards the outer part of the shelf,
while farther seaward there will be no intercalations of topset beds but
an alternation of pelagic and foreset beds. In this way, he suggests, may
perhaps be explained the intercalation of the Amuri limestone between
mudstone and marl in Marlborough. Interpreting the chalky limestone
as pelagic and the marly limestone as foreset beds passing into pelagic,
the frequent alternations of these two kinds of rock in Marlborough receive
a satisfactory explanation. Moreover, since both kinds of beds were laid
down on the broad continental slopes, and since fluctuations in the supply
of waste are regional, it is probable that bands showing such alternations
must have a wide geographical range, and can therefore be used in correla-
tion over neighbouring areas. In respect to the pelagic beds Cotton's
deductions are unaffected by the method of deposition, whether partly
chemical or solely by accumulation of tests of marine organisms.

The following are the reasons for considering that the chalky variety
of Amuri limestone is in large part chemically deposited : —

(1.) Its lithological nature. As Marshall states, by far the greater pait
of the rock consists of very fine-grained calcite. with isolated but fairly
numerous tests of Glohigerma. If this fine-grained material is derived
also from broken tests of Foraminifera, there must have been great com-
minution of the tests before consolidation, and it is difficult to imagine
any agency which could effect this and yet leave the tests of Glohigerina
in such perfect condition. If, on the other hand, the fine-grained material
is the result of solution of tests and recrystallization, it is again difficult
to see why the tests of Glohigerina have escaped the destruction of form
the others have suffered. On the other hand, there is no difliculty in
imagining the tests settling gently into a fine mud of chemical origin, and
])reserving their form during the recrystallization that has certainly in some
cases taken place.

(2.) 7^.9 chemical nature. Specimens of chalky limestone from districts
where the flint-beds occur and others from districts where flints are rare
show ahke a considerable silica-content. The mean of ten analyses I have
collated gives 10-25 per cent, of silica. As the rock contains exceedingly
little terrigenous sediment, this silica must be mainly ascribed to siliceous
organisms if chemical deposition is ruled out ; but neither the remaining
skeletons nor the probable casts of such skeletons are present in sufficient
amount to account for such a large percentage of silica. The position
becomes worse if we add in the silica of the flint-beds, supposing this to be
derived by solution and migration of silica from the overlying limestone
and not from redeposition in situ of the silica of radiolarian or diatomaceous
oozes.

The presence of dolomite in the flint-beds is difficult to explain if the
limestone is a deposit accumulated in deep, cold water solely from skele-
tons of marine organisms. The total amount is not very great, and perhaps

334 Transactions.

not more than might be expected if it represents a downward migration
and accumulation at the base of all the magnesium carbonate originally
present in the whole mass of limestone, but it creates a considerable
difficulty if the flint-beds are considered as siliceous oozes of organic origin
reprecipitated i/( s?<i<. . «.r :^^^^s.%, Si^

(3.) Its lack of fossils. Although the Glohigerina oozes of the present
oceans do not afford a suitable bottom for some forms of benthic life —
e.g., brachiopods — 3^et they are by no means devoid of other forms.
Moreover, the European Chalk, which presumably represents a pelagic
deposit laid down in not very deep water on the continental slopes, is not
conspicuously poor in fossils but can be zoned by means of them. The
Amuri limestone, on the other hand, is practically without any fossils of
benthic organisms from bottom to top, and this can hardly be due to
their destruction after consolidation, since the tests of Glohigerina and
also sharks' teeth have endured. This means, then, that benthic life was
practically absent during its accumulation. The presence of bands of
alternations of marly and chalky limestone proves that the limestone is
not an abyssal deposit, but was laid down on the slopes of the continental
shelf. The absence of benthic life is in accord with a hypotliesis of the
precipitation of a calcareous mud by the presence of solutions in the
bottom waters inimical to animal-life. It is not necessary to postulate
the presence of sulphur bacteria to produce such solutions, for it has
recently been shown that albuminous bacteria can produce similar effects.

There is reason to believe that the formation of the flint took place soon
after dej^osition, and before the beds were folded and jointed. The flints
are themselves much jointed, and, moreover, in the overturned syncline
between the upper Ure and Coverham the flint-beds overlie the limestone
in the reversed upper limb and underlie it in the lower limb. Supposing
the flint-beds to result from a downward migration of silica, it is very
doubtful whether silica-bearing or other solutions could have passed freely
through the marly limestones before these were jointed. It is noteworthy
that the flint-beds are always associated with massive chalky limestones,
and where these fail, as in the Herring River, there are no flint-beds. If,
then, the alternations of chalky and marly limestone imposed an obstacle
to the downward migration of silica, the flint-beds in the Mead section
must result from the redeposition of the silica of only the lower 1 ,500 ft.
of limestone, of which they compose the greater part. The amount of silica
in these lower beds is so great that it could not be explained, apart from
the chemical theory, without concluding that these beds were originally
in large part radiolarian or diatomaceous oozes. Why such oozes should
be so completely altered as to retain no evidence of a former organic
origin is a problem which must be answered b}' the opponents of the
chemical theor}-.

The above reasons seem to me to establish a prima facie case for the
chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate during the deposition of the
Amuri limestone. If this took place it is not difficult to believe that there
was deposition also of magnesium carbonate or of dolomite in a similar
manner. The chemical deposition of silica presents a greater difficulty
to the imagination, and I do not consider that the evidence for this is so
strong, althougli, as I have shown above,, there are also difficulties in
accepting any other explanation.

In seeking to infer the age of the Amuri limestone, the question arises
whether it is a continuously-formed deposit or whether there may be

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence and. Vie Valleys. 335

within it disconforniities or planes corresponding to periods of non-
deposition. The junction between the limestone and the phospliatic green-
sand at the base of the Weka Pass stone in North Canterbury and South
Marlborough appears to represent such a plane, since, although there is
perfect parallelism of dip and strike of the two rocks in all exposures,
the surface of tlie Amuri limestone is perforated by borings filled with
glauconitic material and the loosened fragments of limestone lying at the
base of the greensand are phosphatized.

Barrell (1918) has shown that in epicontinental beds, such as form the
greater part of the geological record in North America, disconformities
must be much commoner than was formerly supposed. These beds, how-
ever, were deposited in shallow epicontinental seas not often miore than
a hundred fathoms in depth. His conclusions cannot be made to apply
to rocks such as compose the bulk of the Notocene in New Zealand, which
have been deposited on a continental shelf fringing a deep ocean, and, for
the greater part, on the outer slope of this shelf. Here, as Cotton (1918)
has shown, when foreset beds fail through insufficiencv of waste to com-
pensate subsidence, or for other reasons, the deposition of pelagic beds
immediately commences. It is difficult to imagine conditions which can
bring about a disconformity between pelagic and foreset beds, such as
exists at the above-mentioni?d junction. If the pelagic beds are in large
part a chemical deposit, however, it is not difficult to imagine a change
of conditions which would put a stop to chemical deposition, and the
formation of purely organic ooze might be so slow as to allow time for tlic
boring of the last-formed bed and the phcispliatization of its u})per surface
before the deposition of the foreset greensand began.

The absence of other phospliatic layers in the Amuri limestone makes
it probable that other similar disconformities do not exist, and the enor-
mously greater thickness of the formation in the Mead area than of that
at Amuri Bluff and farther south proves without any doubt that in the
former area it must have taken much longer to accumulate. If, however,
the limestone is in large part a chemical deposit, and if chemical deposition
was more active in forming the lower part than the upper part, the time
taken to form the greater thickness may not have been much more than
twice that taken for the lesser thickness, although the ratio of the thicknesses
is as four to one. The fact that in both areas the limestone is covered by
the phosphatic greensands and the Weka Pass stone makes it probable
that the top of the limestone is of the same age in both areas. Consequently
the base of the limestone must be much older in the Mead area than it is
at Amuri Bluff.

To believe with Woods (1917) that the Amuri limestone of the Mead-
Coverham area is disconformable to the Clarentian and that it is Eocene
places a much greater strain on the imagination than to believe that it is
conformable and ranges in age from the top of the Clarentian to the base of
the Oamaruian. It would mean that the Clarentian beds were emergent with-
out tilting all through the Cenomanian, Turonian, Senonian, and Danian, and
yet suffered no subaerial erosion such as would truncate their structures
or dissect their surface, and that in the succeeding Eocene transgression so
rapid was depression that there was no marine erosion or deposition of clastic
beds, but instead the immediate formation of pelagic beds. It implies
also that a similar succession of events happened at Anuiri Bluff, except
that emergence lasted only throughout the Danian and lower Eocene ; but
the depression, which was large and sudden, must have been much later

336 Transactions.

than that in the Clan-nce area, since the limestone there is four times as
thick. On the other hand, it is only to be expected that the deposition
of pelagic beds was continuous on the outer slopes of the continental
shelf which must have been formed immediately after the ])ost-Hokonui
deformations, and the differential movement of the Kaikoura deformations
were certainly large enough to elevate even bottom-set beds above sea-
level and certainly extended over a great part of the area covered by the
Notocene continental shelf. There is thus no a priori reason whv conform-
able pelagic and foreset beds extending from Clarentian to Oamaruian
should not be found. The perfect conformity of the limestone to the
Clarentian in the area where it is thickest — viz., from the Dee Gorge to
Benmore — and the presence of apparent passage beds in the Isolated Hill
Creek is most easily explicable on the theory of actual conformity.

The unconformity in the Herring River does not militate against the
above conclusion. The limestone is here very thin, and consists of alter-
nations of chalky and marly limestone which must be correlated with the
similar band in the Bluff River and the upper of the two similar bands in
the Mead Gorge. Two hypotheses in explanation are possible. The Claren-
tian beds may have been emergent during the period when the lower part of
the limestone in the Mead Gorge was formed, or the upper part of the beds
in the Herring River described as Clarentian may be foreset beds younger
than the youngest Clarentian beds of the Coverham section. They con-
sist of sulphur sands and mudstones similar to those of the Piripauan, and
are followed by greensands as in the Piripauan. This resemblance may
be more than accidental. The only Albian fossils found at this end of the
valley come from beds near the base of the series.

The absence of flint-beds in the Herring River, however, and their
presence in small amount under a small thickness of limestone in the
Bluff River, makes it unsafe to predict that the beds immediately beneath
the flint-beds of the Hapuku Mountains are Turonian. They may be also
Clarentian and separated from the overlying limestone by an unconformity.
In the Kekerangu area the limestone appears to be thin and separated by
fairly thick mudstone bands, and again in the hills to the north of the
lower Ure the limestone is quite thin. Obviously there is still a great
deal to be learned about its thickness, nature, and relationshi])s in East
Marlborough, and any final conclusions about its age are premature.

The " Grey MarUr

The term " grey marls " was first applied by McKay to beds of more
or less calcareous mudstone following the Weka Pass stone in the Weka
Pass. Similar beds at Amuri Bluff had previously been termed the
Turritella beds by von Haast, and the Leda marls by Cox, who correlated
them with the so-called Leda marls of Whangape Lake, Waikato. The
term " grey marls " was accepted by Hector and applied to beds of similar
position and age throughout North Canterbury and Marlborough, and
also, owing to a false correlation by McKay, to mudstones underlying
the Ototaran limestones of Oamaru and South Canterbury. The " grey
marls " were considered by Hector and McKay the closing member of
the Cretaceo-Tertiary formation, the succeeding Mount Brown beds in the
Weka Pass district being termed " Upper Eocene." So far as Marlborough
is concerned, the Cretaceo-Tertiary formation of Hector and McKay had
this justification : that the conformable Notocene sequence so far as
known closed with the " grey marls," the great Marlborough conglomerate

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence and U re Valleys. 337

being considered unconformable, while the Awatere beds represented a
younger Tertiary transgression. Outside the diastropliic district of North
Canterbury and East Marlborough, in the South Island at least, no cor-
relative beds of similar naturt* and ])osition are known, and I suggested
in 1916 that the term " grey marls " if confined to nmdstones following
the Weka Pass stone in this district remains a useful geological term, but
that its usefulness is destroyed if it is used indiscriminately for Tertiary
mudstones of any age or position.

The " grey marls '" are generally fine-grained or sandy mudstones with
little calcareous matter except as actual fossils, although concretions are
sometimes found. They form clift's of a grey colour, in opposition to
the bluer and generally more calcareous Wanganuian papas of the North
Island and of the Awatere series, and frequently exhibit the peculiar
conchoidal weathering of indurated but massive mudstones, and seldom
show shaly partings. Very fret{uently the beds become more sandy and
may be described as nmddy sandstones. Bedding-planes are in general
obscure. Fossils are present in almost all exposures, but are often scanty
and frequently crumbling. The larger fossils are chiefly molluscs and
corals, while Foraminifera are in places plentiful. Echinoids are occasion-
ally present, but brachiopods are almost absent.

In the Middle Clarence area I have studied these beds only in the
Mead, Limburne. and Dee Gorges, and must rely on McKay's descriptions
for other parts of the area.

Mead Gorge. — McKay describes the beds as " about 400 ft. of greenish-
grey sandy marls, which contain concretions and a few fossils, not
suflficiently well preserved to be of value in determining the age of the
beds. Casts of Deutaliuni and Solenella were obtained, and fragments of
a nacreous shell are abundant in some part of the softer beds."

The Mead Gorge flares out in crossing the '' grey marls " and forms a
sort of basin-shaped excavation, the sides of which are in great part
.' lijjped. A continuous section is exposed only at the top of the cliffs on
the south side, but the cliffs are here practically unscalable. The junction
with the Weka Pass stone is well exposed on the north side, the latter
rock striking N. 18° E. and dipping 55° to the east. It is an argillaceous
limestone, somewhat shaly, and passes up quite gradually into hard,
somewhat fissile mudstones, of which only about 30 ft. are here exposed.
On the soiith side the lower part of the " grey marls " is covered by
slipped material, except near the top of the cliff. The upper part on this
side appears to be quite conformable to the overlying great Marlborough
conglomerate, but shows no well-defined bedding. There are a number
of small greywacke pebbles in the uppermost part of the "' grey marls,"
seeming to establish a passage to the conglomerate.

Fossils are present in the upper part of the " grey marls," both isolated
and in concretionary blocks. It appears possible, however, that these
l:)locks are not concretions in situ but are derived, for they are frequently
angular in outline and exhibit the broken-oft' ends of shells on their
exteriors. The blocks are small at a horizon 10 ft. from the top, but are
as much as 18 in. in diameter at 100 ft. from the top. There are in
addition many ellipsoidal and rope-like masses which appear to be con-
cretions in situ.

From a horizon 130 ft. from the top I collected Canlium patulum
Hutt. (?). A horizon 100 ft. below the top yielded VoJuta arahka ]Mart.,
Dentalium mantelU Zitt., and Paphia curta Hutt. At 30 ft. I collected

338 Transactions.

Turritella murrayana Tate, Polinices gibhosus (Hiitt.), Siphonalia cono-
iclea Zitt. (?), Miofnelon corrugata (Hutt.), Ancilla hebera Hiitt., Malletia
australi.s (Q. & G.), Chione meridionalis (Sow.) (?), and Paphia curta
Hutt. ; at 25 ft., TtirriteUa murrayana Tate, Ancilla hebera (Hutt.),
Glycymeris globosa (Hutt.), Zenatia acinaces (Q. & G.), Dosinia magna
Hutt., and Paphia curta Hutt.; at 20 ft., Clio (Styiola) rangiana (Tate),
Turritella murrayana Tate, Ancilla hebera (Hutt.), and Limopsis aurita
(Brocchi). Other isolated fossils found in the slips included Struthiolaria
cincta Hutt., Ancilla pseudaustralis (Tate), and Limopsis aurita Brocchi.
One of the supposedly derived boulders yielded Calyptraea maculata
(Q. & G.), Ancilla hebera (Hutt.), Anomia walteri Hector (?), Glycymeris
globosa (Hutt.), Mactra scalpellum. Reeve, and Paphia curta Hutt. Another
similar boulder obtained from a slip contained Turritella murrayana Tate,
Calyptraea maculata (Q. & G.), Dentalium mantelU Zitt., Anomia ivalteri
Hector (?), Glycymeris globosa (Hutt.), Mactra scalpellum Reeve, and Paphia
curta Hutt. All the above determinations and those that follow from the
Dee Gorge were made by the late Mr. H. Suter.

Limhurne Gorge. — The gorge of the left branch of the Limburne is narrow,
and where it opens out on the '' grey marls " is much slipped, so that no
exposures in situ can be observed. The rocks present in the slips are
mudstones of the usual type.

Dee Gorge. — In the north branch of the Dee the lowest beds of the
" grev marl " series are separated from the Weka Pass stone by a fault
of low angle. They consist of hard sandstones forming yellow cliffs, and
are succeeded above by mudstones of the usual type. From the lower
part of these, in cliffs on the south side, I obtained Turritella murrayana
Tate. In the upper part of the mudstones, about 20 ft. below the toj:),
there are thin bands of mudstone alternating with thin bands of sand-
stone containing plant-remains. There are also occasional small pebbles
of greywacke in the mudstones and some thin beds of fine conglomerate.
The junction with the overlying conglomerate is not seen at this point.
From these upper mudstones I collected Acmaea or Patella n. sp., Turritella
murrayana Tate, Struthiolaria tuberculata Hutt., Polinices gibbosus (Hutt.),
Siphonalia subnodosa (Hutt.), Dentalium mantelli Zitt., Glycymeris globosa
(Hutt.), and Ciitherea chariessa Sut.

A little farther u]) tlie stream the junction with the conglomerate may
be observed over a distance of about 12 ft. It is perfectly sharp at this
point, and there is no bedding observable in the uppermost " grey marls,"
which are mudstones.

In the south branch of the Dee the hard sandstones at the base of the
" grey marls " have the same dip and strike as underlying Weka Pass
stone, but the actual junction is not seen. In a subsequent stream
entering this branch from the south-west along the strike of the " grey
marls " the latter series appears to be about 300 ft. thick. The lower
beds on the south-east side are hard sandstones, while the upper beds on
the opposite side are softer mudstones, in which, however, no shell-beds
were observed. The junction with the overlying conglomerate is exposed,
and appears to be a gradual passage, lenses of fine conglomerate appearing
in the upper few feet of the mudstones.

In a second small subsequent tributary entering the south branch
farther u]i on the same side there are a few lenses of sandstone near the
top of the '■ grey marls," but no shell-beds. A crinoid stem was collected
about half-way up this creek. The uppermost mudstones contain pebbles

THOiiaoN.— OV'y/oy// of Middle Clarence and lire Vfdleys. 339

of greywacke, and there is a good deal of mudstone in the bottom of the
conglomerate.

McKay does not describe the " grey marls " in the Dee River, but
his section represents the junction with the overlying conglomerate as
unconformable, the erosion surface on the " grey marls " being gently
undulating.

Upper Sivale and Ure Rivers. — McKay describes the '" grey marls "' on
the western side of the Chalk Range as blue or greenish-grey unfossiliferous
marly beds, about 300 ft. thick, resting conformably on the Weka Pass
stone. They are repeated by folding or faulting farther to the westward.

Farther to the north-east the " grey marls " apparently disappear
through the pitching of the inverted syncline to the south-west, Amuri
limestone being continuous across the Ure River from Brian Boru and
Isolated Hill to the White Bluii's. In the middle Ure, below the gorge, I
have already described the beds which underlie the Amuri limestone, but
which, owing to the probable inversion of the strata, may represent the
Weka Pass stone and " grey marls."

Dart River. — McKay describes the " grey marls " as about 500 ft. thick
and resting conformably on the limestone. Fossils occur as nests in and
sparingly distributed through the grey or greenish marly clays, including
Galeodea senex Hutt., Ancilla sp., and Pecten aff. zitteli Hutt. Fine-grained
concretions similar to those in the Mead Gorge are found, but do not
yield fossils.

Muzzle River. — Here again the " grey marls," according to McKay,
are about 500 ft. thick. Resting on the Amuri limestone is a band of
tufaceous calcareous greensand with Waldheimia sp. and Cristellaria haasti.
Higher beds consist of dark-grey or greenish sandy clay, parted by thin
beds of calcareous sandstone, some of which are richly fossiliferous and
yielded Cristellaria haasti, Pecten zitteli, Venus ? sp., a small, stronglv-ribbed
Pecten, small univalves, Rhi/nchonella sp., and Echinoid fragments.

Bluff River. — McKay does not describe the nature or thickness of the
" grey marls " in this section, but mentions the occurrence of Pecten
zitteli and Galeodea senex, with casts of Malletia, Leda, corals, &c.

Herring River. — McKay does not describe the " grey marls " in this
area, but his section shows their presence between the Weka Pass stone
and the great Marlborough conglomerate, and they are enumerated as
" grey marls containing Dentalium, Natica, Foraminifera." In describing
the conglomerate, he mentions that at the top of a high cliff on the left of
the junction of the Herring River with the Clarence River the Weka P^ss
stone is in contact with the older rocks (pre-Notocene) along the fault-line,
and this I also observed. At lower levels McKay describes an agglomerate
resting on the " grey marls," and consisting of blocks of Amuri limestone,
Weka Pass stone, saurian concretions, and blocks and concretions of middle
Tertiary rock without any evidence of stratification. He seemed uncertain
of their dip, but estimated the thickness at 200 ft., and considered them
involved in the fault-angle. It is difficult to see how, if the Weka Pass
stone, which is dipping towards the fault, rests against it at the top of
the cliff, younger beds can be present against the fault at lower levels.
McKay did not recognize the layer of mudstone, similar to the '" grey
marls," which separates the Weka Pass stone in this area into an upper
and lower band, and I believe he has taken an exposure of this rock
for the " grey marls " and has mistaken a talus deposit for the great
Marlborough conglomerate. In this case the '' grey marls " are absent in
this section. A closer study of the upper beds of this area is desirable.

340 Transactions.

Age and Fonnaticn of the ''Grey Mads."— Owing to the great range
of the majority of Oanmruian IMoUusca, the list of fossils so far collected
from the " grey marls " is insufficient in itself to prove whether the beds
are Lower, Middle, or Upjjer Oamaruian. If, hoM^ever, a correlation with
the " grey marls " of tlie Weka Pass district is admitted, it is necessary
to consider them Middle Oamaruian or Ototaran, since in that locality
they are followed by the Mount Brown beds, the uppermost limestone
band of which is Awamoan, and the middle or main band Hutchinsonian
on the evidence of the rich brachiopod fauna. It is, indeed, possible that
part of the Mount Brown beds is Ototaran, so that the " grey marls "
can hardly be younger than that stage.

According to diastrophic considerations, the presence of thick beds of
mudstone following limestone in such a series as the Notocene is evidence
of a gradual sea-retreat, causing renewed denudation of the thick soil-
mantles accumulated on the peneplained land which formed the coasts
of the middle Notocene seas. If this sea-retreat is in the main due to
movements of the hydrosphere, then the correlation of the " grey marls "
throughout North Canterbury and Marlborough appears well based. The
uniform lithological cliaracters of the upper part of the Amuri limestone,
the phosphatic greensand, the Weka Pass stone, and the " grey marls "
throughout these areas supports the belief that the changes of the
deposits are mainly due to movements of the hydrosphere. The chief
difficulty lies in the conception of gradual emergence in the district
north of the Rakaia Biver at the ver}^ time (Ototaran) when there
was greatest submergence south of that river. Perliaps the true
explanation is that the whole of the Ototaran is comprised within the
Mount Brown beds, which were formed in a ]>eriod of renewed depression.
This would involve the consideration of the '" grev marls " as Waiarekan,
but there would still be the dilficidty of the gradual emergence in the
northern district at the time of a marine transgression in the southern
area, so that there seems no escape from an hypothesis of warping in
minor diastrophic districts, to some extent luasking the effects of
movements of the hydrosphere.

The Great Marlborough Conglomerate and Awatere Beds.

The conglomerate which closes the Notocene series in the greater part of
the Middle Clarence Valley (Plate XXIX, fig. 1), in common with similar
conglomerates in other parts of Marlborough, was termed by McKay the
" great post-Miocene conglomerate," from the belief that certain Tertiary
sandstones which occnr as boulders within it were of Miocene age. The
Miocene of Plector and McKay's classification comprised the beds now
classed as Awamoan and Waitotaran, the latter stage being later than
Miocene, so that the name used for the conglomerate is unsuitable.
Although McKay considered that the conglomerate contained boulders
of sandstones of the Awatere series, which ranges from Awamoan to Wai-
totaran, there is reason to believe that in the Clarence Valley there are
no boulders of rocks younger than Oamaruian in the conglomerate, which
itself appears to be an Oamaruian rock. It is preferable, therefore, to
use a local name for the rocks, and I suggested in 1913 the alteration of
McKay's name to " great IMarlborough conglomerate." Under the latter
name Cotton in 1911 described fully the nature of the conglomerate and
discussed its relationship to the underlying formations in the Mead and
Dee Gorges, and foi' these localities 1 have little to add to his account,
which is freely quoted below.

Thomson. — Geology of Middle' Clarence and Ure Valleys. 341

McKay's conception of the conglomerate as post-Miocene necessarilv
involved a considerable unconformity between it and the " grey marls,"
whicli he classed as Cretaceo-Tertiary. Perhaps in consequence of this
he did not examine the junctions between the two rocks very carefully.
In all liis sections the conglomerate is shown as resting unconformably
on the " grev marls," generally v\-ith very slight truncation of the beds of
the latter, but in the Mead Gorge the truncation shown is very marked.
Hector's section shows the conglomerate overlapping the " grey marls "
on to the Weka Pass stone, but this is in marked disagreement with his
])lan Dr. Cotton and I examined carefully all the exposed junctions in
the ]\Iead and Dee Gorges and could find no evidence of unconformity.
Jf there is anv, it is more probably between the up])er and lower parts
of the rocks above described as " grey marls," for a violent unconformity
may escape recognition in mudstone cliffs. The upper " grey marls "
are certainly Oamaruian, so that even were an unconformity present below
them the conglomerate would still be much older than McKay supposed.

Cotton (1914) has discussed the question of the unconformity of the
conglomerate fully, and has shown how a false impression of unconformity
in tlie Mead Gorge may be received. In the first ])lace, owing to the
widening-out of the gorge wdiere it crosses the outcrop of the weak " grev
marls," the junction has an apparent dip whicli the eye is tempted to
compare with the true dip of the Weka Pass stone as seen below on dip
slopes. In the second ])lace, the surface of the junction, originally plane,
is now broken by a number of small faults, giving it an undulating form
in section. Cotton records the strike of the junction plane as N. 25° E..
and the di]) as 47° to the west-north-west. My observation of the strike of
the Weka Pass stone was N. 18° E., and the dip 55° to the west-north-west.
The slight differences between these figures are less than occur within
similar thicknesses of the Aniuri limestone lower down in the section.

A further argument in favour of conformity is the presence of grey-
wacke pebbles and of plant-bearing sandstones in the upper " grey marls "
of the ]\]ead section, and of conglomerate lenses in a similar position in
the Dee section. Plector has described similar plant-bearing sandston(>s
at the base of the conglomerate in Shades (? Deadman's) Creek and in
Heaver's Creek. In the latter locality I was imable to separate these from
the upper " grey marls." In the Mead section their intercalation with
Oamaruian mudstones is certain.

In almost all exposures McKay records the presence of crystalline
rocks l)elonging to the intrusive dykes which seam the pre-Notocene rocks
in the Tapuaenuku massif. A careful examination of all the exposures
in the Mead, Dee, and various exposures near Kekerangu convinced
Dr. Cotton and myself that these rocks are practically absent, or at least
rare. In almost all exposures there are small boulders of doleritic and
porph^-ritic igneous rocks which bear a closer resemblance to the Clarentian
volcanic lavas of the Clarence and AAvatere Valleys than to the intrusives,
and syenites such as compose the bulk of the upper part of the Tapuaenuku
massif appear to be quite absent. McKay considered that the crystalline
material in the gravels of the Swale and Ure Rivers was derived from the
conglomerate ; but in the latter river this is certainly not the case,
the bulk of the material coming from the dark, coarse-grained dolerite
of the Blue Mountain, of the existence of which McKay was not aware.

Mead Gorge. — As already mentioned, the upper part of the " grev
marls " contains pebbles of greywacke, and concretionary masses with
fossils which may possibly be derived boulders. Cotton describes the

342 Transactions.

basal layer of tlio conglomerate as a bed 2 in. tliiok of conglomerate
formed of small rounded pebbles of greywacke. " Next follows 2 ft. 6 in.
of bedded sandstone, covered ))y 1 ft. of mudstone, and that again is
followed by many feet of fairly coarse conglomerate interbedded with
sandstone ajul mudstone bands 1 ft. to 3 ft. in thickness, and with bands
of very coarse conglomerate."' Tlie l>oulders in the conglomerate ])ands
are of varied sizes, about one-third being over 6 in. in diameter, and blocks
of to 2 ft. in diameter being common. Still larger blocks occur, but are
rare. Small pebbles of greywacke are very abundant tlironghout, and are
smooth and well-rounded. '' There is in addition a large proi)ortion of
fine, sandy material filling the interstices, and the conglomerate is cemented
into a very hard rock." The rocks represented are — pre-Notocene grey-
wacke and jasperoid pebbles, forming the bulk of the finer material ; sand-
stone blocks of all sizes, probably mostly Clarentian ; small boulders of
basalts resembling those of the Clarentian of Herring River and ilouat's
Lookout in the Awatere Valley ; Amuri limestone, not very abundant,
in bhx'ks n]i to 6 in. in diameter, but rarely larger ; water-worn blocks of
fine Tertiarv sandstone, crow^ded with shells, and resembling in appearance
and fossil-content the supposedly derived boulders in tlie underlying '"grey
marls."

Dee Gorge (Plate XXIX, fig. 2). — The lower part of the conglomerate is
very well bedded by thin sandstone bands. The material is genei'ally similar
to that in the Mead, and the presence of Clarentian rocks is proved b}'
the presence of blocks of sandstone containing fragments of Inoceramus.
A verv large block of flint-beds was observed near the base on the north
side, but in general the size of the boulders, as xn the Mead, is smaller
than in the exposures of the Kekerangu area. For further details Cotton's
description should be consulted.

Upper Swale aiul Ure Rivet-^.- There are several se})arated outcrops
of the conglomerate in the uj^per Swale Valley, presumably owing to its
repetition of folds or faults, but their relations are unknown except in
the case of the most easterly, which McKay examined and found resting
on the " grey marls.*' Mr. A. Tomlinson, of Awapiri, Awatere Valley,
informs me that these conglomerates are reddish in colour and form three
sharp ridges known as the Razorbacks. In the upper Ure, as seen from
the summit of the Challc Tlange, there is a main outcrop of conglomerate
running from behind the Whaleback across the river and terminating
opposite Whitewash Creek. This outcrop evidently occupies the core of
the overturned syncline. Two smaller outcrops are seen on tlie w^atershed
between the Ure and the Swale, dipping towards Limestone Hill Avhich
is formed bv the Amuri limestone of the upper limb of the syncline.

Dail River. — McKa\' describes the conglomerate as resting on the '' grey
marls." The series is 500 ft. thick, and dips .r^O'' to 60°"^ to the ncrrtli-
west. The lower beds are coarser tJian the middle and upper parts. In
the middle beds there are gritty sandstones \vilh broken shells and black
shales with abundant plant-remains forming coaly streaks. The upper
part, which is well stratified near the top, is mainly formed of modei-ate-
sized pebbles, with beds of ])lark sliale.

Muzzle River. — McKay describes the beds as of about the same thick-
ness as in the Dart and the Dee. In the west branch they are standing
vertical and rest against the fault. In the eastern branch they form a
syncline resting on the '' grey marls," and the junction along the fault
is obscured. Fossiliferous blocks of Tertiary rocks and concretions and
fossiliferous blocks from the Clarentian are abundant in both sections.

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence and Ure Valleys. 343

Bluff i?rrer.— McKay describes the conglomerate as much thicker than
elsewhere to the north-east, and as very coarse in its lower part, containing
blocks of Amuri limestone 10-35 ft. in diameter, together with boulders
of Clarentian rocks and fossiliferous Tertiary concretions mingled with
well-rounded pebbles of sandstone and volcanic rocks. The higher beds
of the conglomerate are much finer than the middle and lower parts, and
alternate with beds of sandstone, forming a passage to an overlying series
of sandy clays with ribs of hard sandstone which are difficult to distinguish
from the '' grey marls."

Seymour River. — As has already been stated in describing the " grey
marls.'' it appears improbable that the great Marlborough conglomerate
is present in this section, and more likely that the agglomerate described
by McKay really represents an old talus deposit. The only doubt is caused
by his reference to the presence of '' blocks and concretions of middle
Tertiary rock."

Decuhnau's Creek. — Although this section lies outside the area here
described, the relationships of the great Marlborough conglomerate are of
great importance in an}' discussion of its origin. Deadman's Creek lies
immediately soiith of Deadmans Hill on the coast south of Kekeransu.
Hector and McKay have referred to it as Shades Creek, but the true
Shades Creek is still farther to the south.

The sec[uence commences with Amuri limestone or Weka Pass stone,
here argillaceous and with many layers of niudstone. This dips north-west
— i.e., up-stream — and is succeeded by " grey marls." Above this comes
a strong band of the great Marlborough conglomerate, some hundreds of
feet thick. Unfortunately the junction with the " grey marls " is obscure,
but the lower 15 ft. of the conglomerate consists of fine sandstones. The
succeeding 60 ft. of the conglomerate is fairly coarse, although blocks
larger than 3 ft. in diameter are rare. The majority of the boulders are
well rounded, and they consist preponderatingly of pre-Notocene grey-
wackes and jasperoids and Clarentian sandstones. Volcanic rocks similar
to the Clarentian lavas are commoner than usual. Boulders of Amuri
limestone are moderately abundant, and flints are occasionally seen.
Boulders of fossiliferous Tertiary sandstone are not very common, and
are generally of small size and uniform in character.

The gorge of the creek in the conglomerate is impassable, and the creek-
bed below is described by McKay as " choked with huge fossiliferous blocks
from 3 ft. to 15 ft. in diameter, from which a collection of Awatere fossils
of such variety and excellence could be made that the like could not be
obtained from any one locality where the beds occur in sltu.^' Hector
agrees with McKay in believing that these blocks are derived from the
conglomerate. As a matter of fact, no blocks of such size were observed
in the conglomerate, and those in the creek-bed are undoubtedly derived
from a series of shell-beds in situ apparently resting on the conglomerate.
To these I have given the name of the Deadman's Creek beds. They
consist of sandstones crowded with shells along certain layers, some bands
containing predominantly PoUnices, others Turritella, and others Glycymeris.
About 100 ft. of these beds are exposed in the cliffs, and another 100 ft.
along the creek - bottom, where they contain pebbles, the majority of
which are of greywacke and quartz, but one pebble of basalt was observed,
and some blocks of fossils, apparently derived. The junction of these
beds with the underlying conglomerate was not clearly made out. The
dip of the two rocks is the same — about 60° up-stream — and in the cliffs

.344 Transactions.

they appeared to be conformable, but in the bottom of the creek the
junction appeared to be faulted.

From these Deadman's Creek beds I collected fossils, which were deter-
mined by the late Mr. H. Suter as follows : Turritella murraijana Tate.
T. concava Hutt., Stntthiolaria tuherculafa Hutt., Polinices gibhosus (Hutt.),
Siphonalia suhnodosa (Hutt.), Voluta ambica Mart., V. depressa (Suter).
Glycymeris globosa (Hutt.), Dosivia greyi Zitt., and Protocardia sera Hutt.
This is certainly an Oamaruian assemblage, and very similar to that of
the sandy shell-beds of the White Rock River (Awamoan).

The clifis farther up the stream are slipped for some distance, and there
is a gap in the ob.servable succession corresponding to about 100 ft. of
rock with the same dip. Then another band of the great Marlborough con-
glomerate appears, aljout 600 ft. thick, dipping about 60° to the north-
west (up-stream). This is similar in character to the first-mentioned band,
and passes up gradually into a very regularly bedded series of thin sand-
stones and fine conglomerates with occasional layers of mudstone, passing
in turn up to massive mudstones in the Ericaburn. Above this the dip
becomes reversed, and the mudstones can be again traced downwards into
sandstones and thin conglomerates. Beyond this there is a break in the
observable succession, and massive mudstones with large calcareous con-
cretions and a few friable fossils form large cliffs in the Ericaburn about
half a mile above its junction with Deadman's Creek, and present a great
resemblance to the Awatere mudstones in the upper part of Starborough
Creek (Awatere Valley). The thickness of the beds above the conglomerate
up to the point of reversal of dip was estimated at about 700 ft.

It is exceedingly unlikely that there are two bands of great Marlborough
conglomerate separated by 300 ft. of marine sandstones, and it is almost
certain that a fault intervenes between the two outcrops. The boulders
of fossiliferous Tertiary sandstones in the conglomerate are so similar to
those formed by the present creek from the Deadmans Creek beds that
it seems exceedingly likely that it is to these latter beds that we must look
for the source of the bovdders of the conglomerate in this localitv. In
this case a fault must be interposed just above the lower conglomerate,
and the Deadman's Creek beds must be regarded as a facies of the " grey
marls."

Origin and Age of the Great Marlhoroxigh Conglomerate. — Both Hector
and McKay regarded the great Marlborough conglomerate as fluviatile in
origin. " This singular conglomerate probably originated through erosion
by a great river-system which has since disappeared, and the subsec|uent
dislocation of the land-surface that it had covered with its alluvial detritus
in the form of shingle river-beds and great fan -shaped accumulations spread
out into the plains "' (Hector, 1886. p. xxxvi). McKay (1892. pp. 4-5)
described the rocks as having usually the character of glacier morainic
matter and more or less well-rounded river-gravels. " On the whole
it is a drift formation, and the evidence is conclusive that the drift of
the material was from south to north, or from the south-west to the
north-east." The evidence for this drift he found in the nature of the
fossiliferous Tertiary sandstones which were not found in situ in the area
occupied by the conglomerates but closely resembled rocks developed in
the Mason River and Lottery Creek, far to the south-west, and also in the
I)resence in the coastal area near Kekerangu of boulders of the Tapuaenuku
intrusives. We have already seen that this assumption is unnecessary,
since the Deadman's Creek beds to the north-east consist of fossiliferous

Thomson'. — G'color/ij of Middle Clarence and U re Valleys. 345

Tertiarv sandstones, and there are probably other beds of a similar nature
as yet undiscovered in other parts of the area embraced by the outcrop
of the conglomerate. There are also a small number of blocks of Tertiar)-
sandstone in the upper part of the " grey marls " in the Mead and Dee
Gorges.

Park (1910), who examined only the exposures of the Kekerangu River
and Deadman's Hill, concluded that the conglomerate was a glacial moraine
of Pleistocene (early Notopleistocene) age. This hypothesis involves the
formation of the great Clarence and other faults in the late Notopleistocene,
and is quite untenable. In any case, the evidence for the fluviatile origin
of the lower beds of the series is overwhelming.

Cotton (1914) agrees with Hector and McKay that tlie conglomerate
as developed in the Middle Clarence Valley is of fluviatile origin, but
considers it not necessarily the work of a single river. The line of out-
crop thirty miles in length indicates that it was there deposited as a
piedmont alluvial plain and not as isolated fans. The evidences of fluviatile
origin are chiefly the rough sorting of the material into coarser and finer
bands, and the presence of fine regular sandstone bands, often lenticular,
coupled with an absence of distinct false bedding or an arrangement of
foreset beds that would indicate beach or delta conditions of subaqueous
deposition. The character of the conglomerate presents striking analogies
with the terrestrial deposits in Owen's Valley, California, and satisfies most
of the criteria drawn from the study of alluvial and fan deposits.

As has already been stated in the general account of the geology and
])hysiography. Cotton accounts for the peculiar features of the conglomerate
— viz.. that it lies conformably on the '" grey marls " but contains materials
of all the underlying Notocene beds — by assuming that a neighbouring area
was dift'erentially elevated to the extent of perhaps as much as 12,000 ft.
without seriously disturbing the horizontal altitude of that portion of the
Notocene series which, a little later, had the conglomerate deposited upon it.
Since folding and war ping seem to be out of the question, as the surface
of the " grev maris "" is not appreciably tilted, he concluded that the
differential movement must have been block-faulting, with the restriction
that the uplifted block alone moved. The presence of small normal faults
dislocating the conglomerate and '" grey marls " is held to be significant
in this connection, since block-faulting usually takes place along normal
faults, and for a long period after the main faulting the formation of small
normal faults continues, dislocating the fan deposits resulting from the
erosion of the earlier fault-scarp. (L'otton, it should be noted, confined his
explanation solely to the conglomerate as developed in the Mead and Dee
Gorges. Whether it is equally applicable to all other exposures of the
conglomerate cannot be decided without a much more intensive study
of these exposures than has yet been made, but its frequent if not
invariable association with the " grey marls " is significant.

In all the exposures in the Clarence Valley, and in the majority
elsewhere, the conglomerate rests on a surface of the " grey marls." The
chief exceptions, as described by McKay, are at Greenhills (south of the
Looker-on Range), in the Kekerangu River, and in the hills between Ward
and Lake Grassmere. At Greenhills McKay's section (1886, p. 81) shows
it resting, apparently conformably, on the Amuri limestone, but he states
that '■ somewhat obscurely conglomerates are seen on the east side of the
saddle mentioned, and it is at the same time quite apparent that the
. limestone could not terminate in the manner it does without being suddenly

346 Transactions.

cut oli by a fault somewhat in the manner shown in the following sketch "
(the section above referred to). It is quite possible, therefore, that here
also the " grey marls " are present. In the Kekerangu River McKa^- and
Hector n^present the conglomerate as resting with mai'ked unconformity
on a surface of jue-Xotocene rocks, but JMcKay remarks that " from the
abs«>nce of Amuri limestone and Awatere rocks the evidence that these
I conglomerates] are identical with those in Heaver's Creek is not (jiute
conclusive." I observed three bands of conglomerates in going down the
Kekerangu Gorge. The first two resemble the pebbly mudstone of the
Clarentian, the tliird and thicker band resembled more the great Jlarl-
borough congknnerate. but appeared to be faulted down anions the j)re-
Notocene rocks. The relations of the outcro}) near Take Grassmere are
not ;it all well known. In searching for it in 1912 T ascertained that part
of the ar(^a ma])|)ed by McKay as great ilarlborough conglomerate is in
reality occupied by the basal Clarentian (?) conglomerates of the Notocene
series forming the hills to the eastward from The Rocks to bevond Ward,
so that the great Marlborough conglomerate may in this locality form a
narrow strip interposed between the Awatere beds and the Clarentian (?)
rocks. It appears probable that it is here involved along the fault-line
which se])arates tlie Awatere and T'retaceous rocks between Ward and
The Rocks. In all the other known outcro])S of the great Marlborough
conglomerate on the coast near Kekerangu. in Hea\er's Creek, and in
Deadman's Hill and Deadman"s Creek it is resting on the " grev marls,"
as it does in the Clarence Valley. This is very significant, because the
" grey marls " form a very weak stratum and are now almost evervwhere
deej)ly eroded compared to the neighbouring .4muri limestone and pre-
Notocene rocks. If the great Marlboi'ough conglomerate were so much
younger than the "' grey marls,"' as McKay supposed, and the latter were
emergent during a considerable part of the Tertiaiy, one would expect to
find the conglomerate at least as frequently on the Weka Pass stone or
Amu]-i liniestone as on the " grey marls." T am disposed, thert^fore, to
accept the conformity of the conglomerate with the " grey marls "' not only
in the Clarence Valley but in the coastal area near Kekerangu. This
invoh'es the ascription to it of an age similar to that of the Mount Brown
beds in North Canterbury, which follow the " grey marls "' conformably
— i.e., Upt)er Oamaruian.

The relationship of the great Marlborouoh conglomerate to the Awatere
series thus becomes of interest. The upper Awatere beds near Beddon
are Waitotaran, but the lower beds in Tachall's Creek, near Ward, contain
Oamaruian molluscs, and are probably at least as old as Awamoan. The
junction of these lower beds with the Clarentian of the hills north of the
Ure River coidd not be observed, and, as no conglomerates were seen, it is
possibly faulted. In the Awatere River, near the Jordan accommodation-
house, th(^ basal Awatere beds consist of conglomerates and sandstones,
and rest with marked imcouforinity on the ])re-Notocene rocks, while all
the pebbles in the conglomerates are of ])re-Notocene rocks. In the lower
beds in the Medway River Mr. L. J. Wild collected species of Cucullaea, so
that these, too appear to be Up})er Oamaruian. The Awatere beds appear
to be repeated with exactlv similar relationships in the blue clif?s forming
the noj-tli-west corner of Palliser Bay. There is a thin basal cojigiomerate
resting unconformably on an unweathered surface of greywackes and
aroillites. The succeeding miidstones contain an Oamaruian fauna, while
the liio'her miidstones near the Riiamnhano-a River contain a Waitotaran

THo:\rsox. — Geolorpi of MidiUc (.'larcuce and I' re V(i//('i/><. 347

fauna. Obviously, then, in the iiorth-eastern ])art of t!i<» South Isliind
and the south-eastern ])art of tlie Nortli Island a marine transgression
commenced in the Upjier Oamaruian and continued into the Waitotaran.
It apjiears to have covered areas of pre-Notocene rocks not submerged in
the earlier Notocene transgressions, since no bould'M-s of these rocks are
found in its Ixisal conglomerates so far as examined, and this could hardlv
be tlie ease if a cover of Notocene from Clarentian to Oamaruian had been
stri])ped off the pre-Notocene. The Awatere series is absent from the
uj^pev ))art of the Awatere Valley, and ):)robably never covered this area,
since in the lower valley the beds are involved along the Awatere fault
and it would be reasonable to ex})ect to find them similarly involved in the
upper valley if they were ever present there. It a[)pears, therefore, as if
differential earth-movements were at least a partial cause of the Awatere
transgression. We have, then, an emergence of the Clarence and Kekerangu
areas during the formation of the great Marlboroutjh conglomerate, and a
transoression of the sea over the Awatere area, and both these events took
place in the Upper Oamaruian. It appears that they followed one another
in the order named, and that the .\watere transgression affected the
Clarence and Kekerangu areas.

In Deadman's t^reek the u})per outcrop of conglomerate is followed by
a well-bedded marine series of sandstones and fine-grained conglomerates
passing up into mudstones. The geology of the area between the upj^er
part of Deadman's Creek and (larence Mouth is unknown, but from the
accounts given me by settlers it seems that there is a considerable extent
of blue mudstone, or '' |)apa," containing fossils at Parakawa. The marine
rocks followii]g the conglomerate can hardlv be other than the repre-
sentatives of the Awatere transgression, wliich may have a considerable
development in this district. From McKay's descriptions it is evident
that similar rocks are present following the conglomerate in the Bluff
River. He states that these beds are so like the '' grey marls " in a])|)ear-
ance that it is hard to distinguish them. . As at Deadman's Creek, they
are separated from the coarser layers of the conglomerate by beds of sand-
stone and fine conglomerate. 01>viously the evidence of fossils is necessary
to confirm this correlation of the marine beds above the conglomerate with
the .4watere beds.

The existence of tliese overlying marine beds proves that the Clarence
and Kekerangu areas, in which a tiuviatile deposit was forming, g7'aduallv
became submerged. The j)resence of a fairly thick series of sandv mud-
stones at the Bluff River suggests that the submergence was considerable — ■
at least over 600 ft. — since the beds are a])parently foreset, and that the
continental shelf of which they formed a part had an abundant supplv
of fine waste. Cotton estimated the differential movement necessajy for
the formation of the conglomerate as perhaps as much as 12,000 ft. (the
maxinuim thickness of the Notocene up to the to]) of the " grey marls "),
but, as tlie average thickness of the Clarentian is only about 3.000 ft.,
a differential elevation of 6.000 ft. would be sufficient to account for the
features of the conglomerate. If the elevated area were also tilted, as
is conceivable, an elevation of half this amount might sufl[ice. In the
formation of 400-600 ft. of conglomerate the relief of this elevated area,
especiallv near the fault-scarp, would be considerablv reduced, and by a
subsequent drowning of, say, 1,000 ft. the relief would be further reduced.
The nature of the beds of the marine series following the conglomerate
is not inconsistent with Cotton's explanation of its origin. Although it is
not necessary to conclude that the conglomerate was everywhere submerged

348 Transactions.

and covered with the marine beds, it appears quite probable that this was
so. The physiographical evidence is consistent with the supposition that
a regional or very slightly difierential elevation preceded tlie main Kai-
koura deformation, and from the coastal plain thus formed the overlying
soft mudstones and sandstones might be largely stripped by subaerial
erosion before the involvement of the Notocene along the great Clarence
and other faults. In any case, it could only be })y a favourable sequence
of events that such beds, if involved, could be preserved during the sub-
sequent erosion that lias occurred. If they had been so involved and
subsecpicntly eroded, there would be at lirst a fault-line scarp fornied.
and the steep scarps south-westward from the Dee may be, in part, of this
nature.

List of Papers cited.

Aston, B. t'., 1916. Botany of Tapuaenuku, Bull, of Misc. Inform., Keic, No. 7,

p. 182-84.
Baerell, J.. 1917. Rhythms and tlie Measurement of Geological Time, Bull. Geol. Sac.

Amer., vol. 28, pp. 745-904.
Buchanan, J., 1868. Kaikoura District, Rep. Geol. Explor. for 1866-67, pp. 34-41.
Cotton, C. A., 1913. The Physiography of the Middle Clarence Valley, New Zealand,

Geogr. Journ., vol. 42, pp. 225-46.
1914a. On the Relations of the Great Marlborougli Conglomerate to the Under-
lying Formations in the Middle Clarence Valley, New Zealand. Journ. Geol.,

vol. 22, pp. .346-63.
1914b. Preliminary Note on the Uplifted East Coast of Marlborough, Trans. X.Z.

Inst., vol. 46, pp.' 286-94.
— ■ — 1916. The Sti-ucture and Later Geological History of New Zealand, Geol. Mag.,

dec. 6, vol. 3, pp. 243-49. 314-20.

- 1918. Conditions of Deposition on the Continental Shelf and Slope, Journ. Geol.,

vol. 26, pp. 135 60.
Haast, J., 1861. Replorl of a Topographical arid Geological Explornlion of the Western

Districts of Nelson Province, New Zealand, Nelson, pp. viii. 150.
Hector, J., 1886. Kaikoura District, Rep. Geol. Explor., No. 17, pp. xii-xx.wii.
1890a. Amuri District, Rep. Geol. Explor., No. 20. pp. xxxi-xxxvi.

1890b. Marlborough District, ibid., pp. xxxvi-liv.

McKay, A., 1886. On the Geology of the Eastern Part of Marlborough Provincial
District, Rep. Geol. Explor., No. 17, pp. 27-136, with map.

■ 1890a. On the Earthquakes of September, 1888, in the Amuri and Marlborough

Districts of the South Island, Rep. Geol. Explor., No. 20, pp. 1-16.

1890b. On the Geology of Marlborough and the Amuri District of Nelson, ibid.,

pp. 85-185, with col. map.

1892. On the Geology of Marlborough and South-east Nelson, Part II, Rep. Geol.

Explor., No. 21, pp. 1-30, wath map.
Marshall, P., 1916. The Younger Limestones of New Zealand, Trans. X.Z. In.st.,
vol. 48, pp. 87-99.

1917. (leology of the (Jentral Kaipara, Trans. N.Z. Lust., vol. 49, pp. 433-50.

Park, J., 1910. Marlborough Coastal Moraines, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, pp. 520-24.

1917. The Relationsliip of the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Cainozoic Forma-

tions of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 392-94.
Speight, R., and Wild, L. J., 1918. The Stratigraphical Relationship of the Weka

Pass Stone and the Amuri Limestone, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 65-93.
Thomson, J. A., 1912. Field-work in East Marlborough and North Canterbury,

0th Ann. Rep. (n.s.) N.Z. Geol. Surv., Pari. Paper C.-9, pp. 7-9.

1913a. Results of Field-work, 7th Ann. Rep. {n.s.) N.Z. Geol. Surv., Pari. Paper

C.-2, pp. 122-23.

1913b. On the I<xneous Intrusions of Mount Tapuaenuka, Marlborough, Trans.

N.Z. Inst., vol. 45, pp. 308-15.

1916. The FUnt-beds associated with the Amuri Limestone of Marlborough,

Trans N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 48-58.

1917. Diastrophic and other Considerations in Classification and Correlation, and

the Existence of Minor Diastrophic Districts in the Notocene, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 49, pi>. 397-413.
Woods, H., 1917. The Cretaceous Faunas of the North-eastern Part of the South
Island of New Zealand, N.Z. Geol. Surv., Pal. Bull. No. 4.

Thomson. — Geology of Middle Clarence and U re Valleys. 349

Postscript (February, rJl'J).

After the above paper was written I had an opportunity of spending
two days at the Awapiri out-station in the upper valley of the Swale. The
structure of the Notocene rocks in this area proved much too complex
to unravel in tlie time available, but the following points were ascertained.
At the upper end of the Swale limestone gorge tlie up[)er part of the Amuri
limestone rests against the great Clarence fault without the interposition
of the "grey marls" and great Marlborough conglomerate. Farther to
the north-east an alternation of Amuri limestone and conglomerate occurs,
doubtless due to faulting, so that the limestone is rej)eated at least three
times. From a stratigraphical point of view the most interesting fact
ascertained was the presence of a mudstone resembling the "grey marls"
and containing rare Oamaruian fossils, which ap])arently lies between the
limestone and the conglomerate. This mudstone is in places crowded
with small and large rounded boulders of Amuri limestone. This observa-
tion points to the probability of an unconformity between the " grey marls "
and the lower beds. I hope to have an opportunity of revisiting this area
in the near future and furnishing a connected account of its structure and
stratigraphy.

Art. XXXIII. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera.

By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S.

Communicated by G. V. Hudson, F.E.S.

[Read before the Neiv Zealand Institute, at Chrisichurch, 4th-8th February, 1^19 ; received
by Editor, 12th February, 1919 ; issued separately, 28th July, 1919.]

These notes are based as usual on inaterial kindly sent by Messrs. Hudson
and Philpott, and include ten new species. The discovery of an example of
the Diplosaridae shows that the possibilities of surprise are not yet exhausted.

Caradrinidae.
Aletia falsidica Meyr.

A c? (36 mm.), received from Mount Earnslaw (Hudson), has antennae
shortly bipectinated {a 1, b Ih), towards apex simple : this character esta-
blishes the distinction from griseipennis, which has antennae of o simple.

Hydriomenidae.

Chloroclystis semochlora n. sp.

(5 ?. 26-28 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen green, patagia tipped
with grey hairs beyond a black bar. Palpi 2, green, tip whitish. Antennal
ciliations fasciculated (3|). Forewings broad-triangular, termen hardly
waved, rounded, rather oblique ; green ; basal, second, and third fasciae
deeper olive-green, especially third, somewhat curved, waved, slightly
marked with black on edges, third preceded and followed by slight whitish

350 TransactioDS.

suffusion in disc ; fourth fascia composed of three waved slightly curved
somewhat darker lines, edged posteriorly above middle by a curved black line
edged with white posteriorly and followed by a roundish grey spot becoming
whitish anteriorly ; fifth fascia indicated by small black marks between this
spot and costa, elsewhere by faint traces of whitish lines and some black
marks on veins ; subterminal line pale bluish-green, waved-dentate ; a fine
black interrupted terminal line : cilia pale-greyish, towards base triangularly
barred with darker grey. Hindwings with termen rather unevenly rounded ;
grey- whitish, on dorsal half with more or less marked grey waved transverse
lines, two of these towards tornus suft'usedly blackish on dorsal area ; a grey
terminal fascia enclosing a waved-dentate whitish line ; lower half of termen
sometimes suffused with light green ; a fine interrupted blackish terminal
line : cilia pale grey, with indications of darker bars.

Mount Egmont, 3,000 ft., in February (Hudson) ; two specimens. Sent
with paralodes (to which it is nearest) and regarded as a form of it, but larger,
greener, and quite distinct by absence of black band on abdomen, broader
wings without the black markings of paralodes, but with a characteristic grey
spot beyond median band, and somewhat shorter fascicles of antennae.

Xanthorhoe eupitheciaria Guen.

Closelv related to cinerearia. but slightly larger, apex of forewings some-
what more pointed and termen less rounded, ground colour of forewings and
hindwings whitish, not appearing grey.

I have regarded this as the mountain form of cinerearia, but Mr.
Philpott is, I believe, of opinion that it is specifically distinct, and this is
probablv correct. If so, the name eupitheciaria Guen. is properly appli-
cable to it ; Walker's synonyms are, according to my notes, all referable
to cinerearia proper. I possess eupitheciaria from Mount Arthur, Mount
Hutt, and Lake Wakatipu (3,000-4,000 ft.), and it seems common in the
mountains of the South Island.

Xanthorhoe obarata Feld.

I agree with Mr. Philpott's suggestion that X. cymozeucfa Meyr. is only
a synonym of X. obarata Feld. My examples of X. oharata were old and not
in very good condition, but I think there is no true distinction.

Selidosemidae.

Selidosema prototoxa n. sp.

$. 3-i m. Head and thorax whitish-grey, partially tinged with brownish,
with scattered black specks. Palpi 2|, grey. Abdomen pale greyish-
ochreous, sprinkled with fuscous on basal half. Forewings somewhat
elongate-triangular, termen rounded, rather oblique ; pale fuscous, strewn
with irregularly scattered black specks, longitudinally suffused with pale grey
(faintly greenish-tinged) in disc above middle, and irregularly on subdorsal
area ; a short suff'used black submedian streak from base ; first line dark
fuscous, from I of costa to a of dorsum, acutely angulated in middle, lower
half slightly curved ; median fuscous, nearly straight, rather irregular ;
second line dark fuscous, from | of costa to § of dorsum, rather incurved,
more strongly on lower half, nearly followed by a thick parallel dark-gre}^
shade ; subterminal line slender, whitish, edged with dark fuscous, nearly
obsolete towards middle, strongest near dorsum ; some white subdorsal

Metric'K. — Descriptions of Sew Ztahind Le.pidopttra . 351

suffusion between these lines, strongest before subterminal ; teeth of sub-
terminal line connected with termen by more or less marked blackish inter-
neural streaks : cilia pale-greyish (imperfect). Hindwiugs with termen
unevenly and irregularly rounded ; pale-greyish, with indistinct darker
specks, more distinct and blackish-tinged towards termen : an indistinct
waved grev subterminal line : cilia pale-greyish.

Tokaanu, in April (Hudson) ; one specimen. The black basal streak
and peculiar form of first line make this species very distinct.

Crambidae.
Crambus menstes n. sp.

cJ$. 16-19 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax dark brown, })al]n whitish
towards base beneath. Abdomen dark grey. Forewings elongate, posteriorly
dilated, costa slightly arched, apex obtuse-pointed, termen slightly I'ounded,
somewhat oblicjue ; dark brown ; a moderate ochreous-white median longi-
tudinal streak from base to termen, slightly narrowed towards extremities :
cilia grey. Hindwings dark grey : cilia grey or whitish-grey, or in $ whitish,
with grey subbasal line.

Long-wood Range, 2,700 ft.. in December (Phil})ott) ; seven specimens.
Sent (together with examples of auUstes and saristes from other localities) by
Mr. Philpott as aethonelliis, showing that his remarks in Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 49, p. 215, are founded on misconception of these species, which are
closely allied but distinct, and seem not to occur together. 1 therefore
indicate the points by which these three other species may be clearly
separated from meristes and one another — viz., aethoneUns by the defined
white line along costa throughout, aulistes by the white line on ])osterior
half of costa only (sent by Mr. Philpott from Flagstaff" Hill), and saristes
by the peculiar form of median streak, which has the terminal fourth
suddenly much more slender, the end of the preceding portion tending to
show a slight pointed projection beneath it (this is the Seaward Moss species).
True aethonellus I have from Mount Hutt and Takitimu Mountains.

_ , TORTRICIDAE.

Tortrix antichroa n. sp.

(J. 16 mm. Head light grey. Palpi 2-|, whitish-ochreous suffused with
pale grey. Antennal ciliations li. Thorax yellow-ochreous. Abdomen
rather dark grey. Forewings suboblong. slightly dilated posteriorly, costa
anteriorly moderately, posteriorly slightly arched, without fold, apex obtuse,
termen faintly sinuate beneath apex, slightly oblique ; fuscous, with faint
violet tinge, somewhat sprinkled with ferruginous ; a yellow-ochreous patch
occu])ying basal f of wing, edge straight, rather oblique, finely whitish,
followed by dark-fuscous suffusion ; a small fuscous mark in disc at J ;
several darker strigulae or small si)ots on posterior half of costa : cilia fuscous
suffusedly mixed with ferruginous. Hindwings dark grey, somewhat lighter
anteriorly : cilia light grev.

Mount Egmont, 3,000 ft., in February (Hudson) ; one specimen. In
colouring recalls Epichorista heniionana, but broader-winged.

DiPLOSARIDAE.

This family (which may be placed above the Cosmopterygidae) is new to
the New Zealand fauna. In general characters it approaches the Cosmo-
pterygidae, but is distinguished from that family by the absence of the

352 Transactions.

pronounced costal shoulder with scale-projection at about \ of hindwings,
the costal edge being quite regularly arched. The family as hitherto known
is entirely restricted to the Hawaiian Islands, where it constitutes the mass
of the Micro-Lepidopterous fauna, the known species approaching 300, and
indicating a probable total of quite 500. The following species (quite cer-
tainly a characteristic member of the family) is the first discovered elsewhere,
and is therefore of very great interest ; but it must be observed that the
Tireina of the other Pacific islands are hardly at all known yet (I wish
some one would explore them), and some may be found there. The new
species would seein, however, to be an extreme straggler from the centre of
development.

Irenicodes n. gen.

Head with appressed scales, side tufts somewhat raised ; ocelli small,
posterior ; tongue developed. Antennae |, in (J moderate, fiiliform, simple,
basal joint moderately elongate, without pecten. Labial palpi moderately
long, curved, ascending, rather slender, with appressed scales, terminal joint
shorter than second, acute. Maxillary palpi rudimentary. Posterior tibiae
clothed with long hairs above. Forewings with 16 short-furcate, 2 from
angle, 3 absent, 6 and 7 out of 8, 7 to costa, 11 from middle. Hindwings |,
narrow-lanceolate : cilia 3 ; 2-4 parallel, 5 absent, cell open between 4 and 6,
6 and 7 stalked.

This genus represents an advanced form of the family, and therefore offers
no assistance towards the problem (at present insoluble) of the geographical
origin of the oldest portion of the Hawaiian fauna.

Irenicodes eurychora n. sp.

cJ. 13 mm. Head and thorax pale-ochreous. Palpi whitish, second
joint suffused with grey anteriorly except at apex. Antennae grey.
Abdomen dark grey, anal tuft ochreous-whitish mixed with grey. Fore-
wings narrowly elongate-lanceolate, long-pointed, acute ; pale brownish -
ochreous ; a costal streak of dark-fuscous irroration from base to near apex,
and a similar somewhat narrower dorsal streak attenuated to extremities
from base to near tornus : cilia grey, towards base scaled with ])ale ochreous.
Hindwings dark fuscous : cilia rather dark grey.

Paekakariki, in March (Hudson) ; one specimen.

Oecophoridae.

Borkhausenia ancogramma n. sp.

(J. 16 mm. Head ochreous-grey-whitish sprinkled with fuscous. Palpi
ochreous-whitish, basal half of second joint and a subapical ring dark fuscous,
terminal joint | of second, with dark-fuscous subbasal and subapical rings.
Antennal cilia tions under 1. Thorax fuscous somewhat mixed with ocherous-
grey-whitish, suffused with dark fuscous towards margins. Abdomen
whitish-ochreous mixed with light-brownish. Forewings elongate, costa
gently arched, apex obtuse, termen rounded, rather strongly oblique ; pale
ochreous irregularlv sprinkled with light-brownish and a few dark-fuscous
scales ; a thick dorsal streak of pale ground-colour from base to near tornus,
sprinkled with light fuscous on a patch beyond middle and with dark fuscous
on dorsal edge towards base, margined above by an obtusely angulated dark-
fuscous streak (suffused above with fuscous) from base of costa to plical

Meyrick. — Dfscrijif ions of Ntiv Zt-ahnu! Lepidoftera. 353

stigma, ])ostei'ioiiy rather ex|)anded and with a short prominence beneath
second discal stigma, extremity obliquely truncate, surrounded posteriorly
with fuscous suffusion and some dark-fuscous scales ; stigmata dark fuscous,
plical rather obliquely before first discal, second discal transverse, an addi-
tional cloudv dot on margin of dorsal streak between first and second discal ;
blotches of fuscous suffusion on costa at \ and middle, latter connected
by second discal stigma with dark posterior margin of dorsal streak : a
fuscous spot on costa at a, with very faint indications of subterminal line ;
two cloudv fuscous costal dots near apex : cilia whitish-ochreous speckled
with light-brownish. Hindwings very pale greyish : cilia whitish-ochreous.

Wainuiomata, in December (Hudson) ; one specimen. The antennal
ciliations are perceptibly shorter than in the much less strongly marked
innotella, in which they are full}' 1.

Izatha amorbas Meyr.

Having received a second specimen with the palpi in better condition,
I find that (as has been already suggested by Mr. Philpott) the species is
])roperlv referable to Izatha, not to Track ypepla.

Plutellidae.
Orthenches glypharcha n. sp.

9. 10-11 mm. Head white. Palpi white, with a bronzy lateral line.
Antennae white, ringed with dark fuscous, basal portion lined with dark
fuscous. Thorax white with a faint bronzy-tinged central line, patagia
shining bronze. Abdomen light grey. Forewings elongate, costa moderately
arched, apex pointed, termen slightly sinuate, rather strongly oblique ;
bright shining bronze : markings shining white ; a streak along fold from
base to § ; an oblique strt^ak from costa before middle to fold ; an oblique
streak from costa beyond middle not reaching half across wing, and a slightly
oblique streak from dorsum before tornus, their apices connected by a purple-
black mark ; a purplish -black dot on tornus ; three small wedge-shaped
spots on costa posteriorly ; three or four small marks or dots along termen.
one below middle forming an erect strigula : cilia grey, basal half bronzy,
round apex with three or four white bars. Hindwings grey : cilia light grey,
with darker subbasal shade.

Mount Egmont, 3,000 ft., in February (Hudson). A striking and novel
form of the genus, with interesting suggestions of relationship to Proto-
synaema and Ghjphipteryx.

Lyonetiadae.
Erechthias externella Walk.

Mr. Hudson states that monastra Meyr. is apparently $ of this species, as
he has long series of both forms, all externella being ,^ and all monastra ? ;
I fully concur in this conclusion.

^. , Tineidae.

Tinea sphenocosma n. sp.

5. 1 1 mm. Head whitish irregularly and suftusedly mixed with fuscous.
Palpi fuscous, tip white. Thorax dark fuscous, posterior margin rather
broadly white. Abdomen dark grey. Forewings elongate, rather narrow,
costa gently arched, apex obtuse-pointed, termen slightly rounded, rather

12— Trans.

354 Transactions.

strongly oblique ; dark fuscous, closely strewn with irregular whitish dots
or small spots except towards costa ; eleven slightly oblique transverse or
wedge-shaped white spots from costa, first five extended as streaks nearly
half across wing, fifth enlarged into a spot at extremity : cilia fuscous with
two darker shades, a direct projecting fine dark - fuscous bar at apex,
margined on both sides by triangular white spaces, beneath apex a tri-
angular white spot opposite eleventh costal. Hindwings trapezoidal-ovate,
fuscous, darker and strongly purple-tinged posteriorly : cilia grey.

Wellington, in December (Hudson) ; one specimen. It is perhaps possible
that this is the other sex of accusatrix (of which I have two S specimens only),
resembling it in the peculiar apical projection ; but the diii'erences in other
respects are so great that I must regard it as distinct until further evidence
is available ; the wings are much broader, especially the hindwings, whicli
in accusatrix are ovate-lanceolate, acute, and termen of forewings much less
oblique ; the conspicuous round black apical spot is entirely absent, and the
white markings in cilia round apex quite differently arranged.

Arcfiyala haiosparta n. sp.

(J. 11 mm. Head whitish, somewhat mixed with fuscous on crown
([)artly rubbed). Palpi grey. Thorax fuscous mixed with dark fuscous
and sprinkled with whitish. Abdomen dark grey. Forewings elongate,
rather narrow, costa moderately arched, apex obtuse-pointed, termen very
obliquely rounded ; violet-fuscous, irrorated with blackish, sprinkled and
strigulated with white, especially thickly strigulated along dorsvim ; about
six obscure oblique dark - fuscous streaks from costa, reaching nearly half
across wing ; a small white spot on dorsum before tornus ; two or three
whitish dots on costa towards apex : cilia fuscous with two darker shades
(imperfect). Hindwings dark grey, suffused with deep purple posteriorly :
cilia grev, with darker subbasal shade.

Wainuiomata, in December (Hudson) ; one specimen.

Talaeporia scoriota Meyr.

Furtlier specimens received from West Plains, Invercargill (Philpott),
show WvAi glob^ilosa Meyr. is only a strongly marked variety of this.

Nepticulidae.
Nepticula perissopa n. sp.

(J 9. 6-7 mm. Head and eyecaps whitish-ochreous, centre of crown
dark grey or blackish. Thorax dark violet-fuscous. Abdomen grey. Fore-
wings broad-lanceolate ; pale greyish-ochreous, more or less suffused
(especially in S) with violet-grey, and coarsely and irregularly strewn with
dark-fuscous scales, especially towards apex, where in ? they form a suffused
dark blotch occupying \ of wing ; an elongate dark-fuscous spot on fold at \ ;
an elongate blackish spot in disc beyond middle, in $ surrounded by a nearly
clear space : cilia pale greyish-ochreous, basal f coarsely irrorated with
blackish round apex and upper part of termen. Hindwings grey : cilia light
ochreous-grey.

Mount Egmont, 3,000 ft., in February (Hudson) ; two specimens.

Laixo. — Vef/cfafion of Bankx I'linnnida.

Art. XXXn'. — The Vegetation of Banks Peninsula, unfh a List of
Species ( Floicering-plants and Ferns).

By Robert \i. Laing, B.Sc.

{Read before the Sen- Zealand I nstilute, at Christchiirrh. 4lh-8th February. 1U19 :
received by Editor, 2nd Ajiril. I'.IJU. issued -separafeli/. Wth Anipisl. 19]f).]

The Indigenous Vegetation of Banks Peninsula.

Physiographic.

Banks Peninsula, on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand,
is such a well-defined and isolated area that it is remarkable that it has not
received more attention from botanists. The list of papers at the end of
this article shows how scanty has been the botanical work done on this
group of hills. Indeed, there is at present no reliable list of the species
occurring there. This is the more to be regretted as no portion of the
area except the coastal cliffs and the salt marsh now remains in its original
condition : and no doubt even on the cliffs some introduced species of plants
are to be found. The complete destruction of the forest and the annual
burning of the tussock areas have so altered the plant associations that it is
difficult to reconstruct them, even in imagination, with accuracy. Some
species are now undoubtedly lost, man)" more have been introduced from
without, and the relative numbers of those present have been, of course,
totally reproportioned. Any attempt to describe in detail the distribution
of species over the area before the arrival of the white man must of necessity
fail, but the rough outlines of that distribution can still be determined.

The following paper therefore attempts to give that information, and
to provide a list of the indigenous species that should be useful to
future .students of the area. It is not necessary to describe the chief
physiographic features of the area, as this has already been done in
the papers of von Haast. Hutton, and Speight, which are readily
accessible. Suffice it to say that Banks Peninsula stretches out to the
south-east from the centre of the eastern side of the Canterbury Plains.
It is oval in shape, and about thirty-five miles long and twenty
wide. It consists of a congeries of hills rising at the centre in Mount
Herbert to a height of just over 3,000 ft, and in Mounts Sinclair and
Fitzgerald to a slightly less height. From these and other peaks long
ridges with steep sides run out in all directions, enclosing occasionally
narrow flat*^ containing several hundred acres of land. Beyond the flats
and between the outer ridges are the smaller bays. On the seaward side
the ridges terminate in cliffs 300 ft. to 500 ft. high ; and on the landward
side slope down to the plains, cliffs being absent. Two large harbours, on
the sites of old volcanic calderas, break into the hills, and are surrounded
by steep walls which rise in rocky cliffs and escarpments to the height of
2,000 ft. in Akaroa Harbour, and somewhat less in Lyttelton Harbour.
The longest valleys are the Little River and Kaituna Valleys, each some
seven miles in length, both at one time, throughout part at least of their
lengths, arms of the sea. To the south-west lies a large, shallow, brackish
mere — Ellesraere — formed by the blocking-up of the mouth of the Selwyn
River. This action is due to the shingle drifted u\) the coast from the
mouth of the Rakaia River by the southern current.

12*

356

Transactions.

M-^ f^l.C'tiAfV

SKETCH MAP

or

BANKS PENINSULA.

J)) hi h?'^

COOf>£ffS

.■neo '

nffMCRHCPT P

/W/r£#Pf«r '.V 0 ^,,

• . V, C^ M fiT ZCEftALD

CfBBiCS PAii \ rt iL' tllO

L.ELLF-SMERE

Some Localities not marked on Map.

Allaiidale, between C4ovenior's Bay and Teddington.

Aylmer\s Valley, one of the valleys behind Akaroa.

Balgveri Valley, behind Akaroa Township.

Barry'' s Bay, near the head of Akaroa Harbour.

Castle Rock, also known as Mount Herbert Peak.

Charteris Bay, at the foot of Castle Rock.

Catcm's Bay, on Lake Forsyth, near Little River.

Damon's Bay, north of Akaroa East Head.

Dover Castle, rocky wall overlooking Heathcote Valley.

Flea Bay, north of Damon's Bay.

Oollaii's Bay, at the foot of the Zigzag, Lyttelton -Sumner Road.

Island Bay, between Akaroa Heads and Peraki.

Loruj Bay : There are three Long Bays on the peninsula, but indications

are given in the text as to the one referred to.
Long Lookout Point, east of Little Akaloa Bay.

Ohinitahi, on Lyttelton Harbour, between Governor's Bay and Teddington.
Okute Valley, rimning from Saddle Peak to Little River.
One Tree HiV, between Lyttelton and Port Levy.
Otahuna Valley, running from Cooper's Knobs to the plains.
Rapaki, Maori settlement between Lyttelton and Governor's Bay.
Stotty Bay : The one referred to is between Little Akaloa and Okain's.

There are two bays of the name on the peninsula.
Taylor's Mistake, between Sumner and Lyttelton Heads.
Teddington, at the head of Lyttelton Harbour.
Tikao Bay, opposite Akaroa, on the harbour.
Timutimu, west head of Akarca Harbour.

Waikerikikeri, bay south of Le Bon's, and popularly known as Hickory.
Wai7mi, between Tikao Bay and the Heads.

Laing. — Vegetation of Banks Peninsida. 357

We are dealing, then, with an area which consists of long, moderately
stee]) hill-slopes, radiating out from the central heights, It is broken on
its outward sides by harbours, bays, and valleys, with steep cliffy sides.
There is comparatively little flat land. Alpine shingle-slips are completely
wanting, and screes are of rare occurrence. Bogs and swanips are of very
small extent, and consist of the damp spots in the neighbourhood of springs
and streams. Salt marshes and meadows, however, abound, chiefly in the
neighbourhood of Lake EUesmere. The highest hills rise above the forests
into subalpine grasslands. On three sides — the north, south, and east — the
pejiinsula is surrounded by the ocean ; but on the western side it meets
the Canterbury Plains. The attached map will give the names of the
chief places referred to, and a list is provided with the situations of the
less known minor localities.

Climatic.

The climate of the peninsula may be described as typically insular and
warm-temperate. It differs somewhat from that of the Canterbury Plains,
which is more continental in type.

Thus the plains are much colder on winter nights than the adjacent
hills. The temperature of Cashmere Hills on frosty nights is from 3° C. to
b"" C. higher than that of Christchurch, and on the hills at EedcUffs and
Sumner it is still warmer. There ice is rarely seen. The lowest tem-
perature that may be observed on the Cashmere Hills is about —8° C,
but winters pass in which it does not fall below —4° C. or —5° C.
Even in midwinter the days are often bright and warm, and the tem-
perature in the lower valleys is as high as 15° C. in the shade. Frosts
may occur on the plains in any month of the year, but on the neighbour-
ing hills they are almost unknown between September and April. Thus
in the beginning of November, 1918, an unusually severe frost (—7° C.)
occurred in Christchurch. This was so slightly felt on the hills that
tomatoes and potatoes remained unchecked and almost untouched by it.
The conditions on the hilltops have been but little studied, though, of
course, the temperatures there must be considerably lower both in summer
and winter than those at the foot. The temperature range through the
year on the lower portion of the hilLs is comparatively small, but reliable
records are difficult to obtain. Probably the difference of average tem-
perature is not more than 8° C. or 9° C. between a month of winter and
one of summer, though the maximum temperature in summer is often
com])aratively high, and the thermometer may even rise above 33° C. In
the warm, sheltered valleys on the north side of the peninsula the con-
d tions must approach the warm-temperate, and this is shown in the fact
that many typical North Island plants find here their southernmost limit.
(A list is appended, pp. 369-70.)

The rainfall varies in different localities, but as comparatively few
records have been taken on the peninsula it is impossible to give detailed
results. Plowever. the average probably varies from about 25 in. (Con-
valescent Home, Cashmere Hills) to about 50 in. or 60 in. (on the top of
Mount Herbert). A series of careful observations extending over nineteen
years (1899-1918) at Pigeon Bay, taken by Mr. E. Hay, give an average
of 29"5 in., with a maximum of 39-5 in. in 1913 and a minimum of 16 in.
in 1915. The rainfall in th(^ outer portions of the area between Pigeou
Bay and Akaroa is no doubt higher than this. [n the latter place the
records show an average of 45 in. Between Timutimu Head and Birdhng's
Flat there is aoain a reduction in the rainfall, for the Akaroa Hills cut off

358 Travsactions.

much of the easterly rain. This district therefore reproduces largely the
flora of the Lyttelton Hills, but, having a southerly aspect, no doubt is
neither quite so hot nor so dry as they are.

Snow falls every year on the hilltops, and on Mount Herbert usually
lies for some weeks, but at the base of the hills it does not often fall, and
usualh' does not lie for more than a few hours. Tlie winter of 1918 was
exceptional, when snow fell to a depth of 10 in. even at the foot of the
hiUs, and the conditions above 1,000 ft. were truly alpine. Such falls do
much damage in the forest in breaking down trees and branches, though
but little permanent harm results if frosts do not follow.

Next to the rainfall and temperature the most important climatic factor
is the wand. The prevailing wind is from the north-east. This in summer-
time is usually a sea-breeze, and then brings no rain, but when part of
a cyclonic system it frequently biings continuous though often light rains
lasting over many hours. The north-east wind passes into the north-west
wind, which is much less frec[uent, and is hot and dry. Only on the rarest
occasions does it bring a scanty shower of rain. It has, as will be seen
later, a most important effect on the distribution of the plants within the
area. The south-wester is a cold, wet wind, bringing much rain, and deter-
mines largely the vegetation on tlie cliff-faces exposed to the south. The
south-easter is, on the northern side of the peninsula, a somewhat rare wind,
of a gusty character — often stormy and occasionally bringing heavy rains.
It is often deflected as an easterly or north-east wind. The higher rainfall
of the outer portion of the peninsula is largely due to it.

The rainfall is very irregular in its distribution over the year. The months
of December to March are usually dry, but exceptions occur. During this
period droughts are not uncommon, particularly on the north-west faces of
the peninsula, and often affect the vegetation. This has tended to produce
a distinctly xerophytic type of vegetation on the Lyttelton Hills, though
elsewhere it tends to the mesophytic.

Changes in the Plant Covering.

It has already been stated, and cannot be too strongly insisted on, that
here — as in so many other places in New Zealand — we are dealing with a
vegetation that has during the last seventy or eighty years undergone,
and is still undergoing, immense changes. The greatest of these is, of
course, the disappearance of the forest. Captain Thomas, Agent for the
Canterbury Association, reporting on the 15th May, 1849, estimated that
half of the area of Banks Peninsula — viz., 134,000 acres — was forest ; but
this probably was an underestimate, as nearly two-thirds of the peninsula
must have laeen forest-covered. Now there is probably nowhere on the
peninsula a stand of 300 acres of timber-trees, although there are larger
areas of the smaller bush trees, as in the forest at the back of Mount
Herbert. The reserves at Peraki Saddle, including some 167 acres, perhaps
contain the best specimen of primitive forest now to be seen on the
peninsula. Though there are equally fine trees near the L}^teltou-Kaituna
saddle, yet here the undergrowth has to a large extent been destroyed by
stock. It is unfortunate that what up till recently was the finest forest
on the peninsula— viz., the one at Stony Bay — is now being cut out by its
owners. Kennedy's Bush Reserve, near Christchurch, unfortunately con-
tains few trees of any magnitude, and its former wealth of tree-ferns has
been completely destroyed.

Laing. — Vegetation of Banks Peninsula. 359

Agents altering Plant-distribution.

The primitive plant covering, then, has largely disaj)peared, and has
been replaced by introduced species, particularly by grasses ; the balance
in the remaining plant associations has been altered, and the conditions
under which many of the species live are quite changed. Probably the
grasslands of the Lyttelton Hills have been less altered than the forests
of the peninsula, for the tussock form still dominates ; yet here certainly
many changes have taken place and others are still in progress. The chief
destructive agents at work where cultivation has not been employed are
continual tussock-fires, bush-fires, drought, sheep, cattle, on the I^yttelton
Hills rabbits, and on Banks Peninsula hares.

On the grasslands the tussock-fires make for the extinction of the ferns,
for the reduction in the number of the species, for the replacement of certain
grasses by others, for the destruction of isolated shrubs, and for the multi-
plication of a fcAv plants that can to some extent withstand the action of
fire — e.g., Coriaria sarmentosa.

On the other hand, bush country when burned and allowed to restock
itself reproduces the usual fire weeds ; but these are seldom or never allowed
to remain, being either destroyed by the hand of man or replaced in old
burns by Pteridium esculentum or species of Leptospermum. These changes
however, will be considered in greater detail under the various plant
formations.

It may, however, be noted here that in all the inoister bays of the
peninsula — that is to say, from Port Levy eastward and southward to
Akaroa- -cocksfoot (Dactylis glornerata) was sown on the burnt areas, and
the result has been the development of an artificial plant association. After
the first sowing this grass has replaced itself in a remarkable way, and
though reaped for forty or fifty years has continued to produce crops of
almost undiminished vigour. Largely owning to the scarcity of casual labour
the cocksfoot harvest is now becoming a thing of the past, and dairy-
farming is to a large extent replacing it.

The cattle are grazed on the cocksfoot, which is the chief ingredient
of the pasture lands, though rye-grass {Lolium perenne), timothy [Phleum
pra(ense), and crested dogstail {Cynosuras eristatns) are also to be met with
in smaller quantity. Sheep are to be found chiefly on the tussock areas,
though even on the cleared forest areas they are in many places being
stocked in increasing numbers, owing to the smaller amount of labour
involved in looking after them. Further discussion of these economic
matters would, however, be out of place here.

The changes due to the action of animals on the vegetation, though
extensive, are not so wide-reaching as those of fire. Sheep cro]) certain
grasses, and thus prevent them seeding. They also attack other species
of plants, such as Angelica nwntana, Carmichaelia suhulata, and even the
young spinous leaves of Aciphylla squarrnsa. On the other hand, their
function in the spreading of ])lants by means of seeds can hardly be over-
estimated. The large increase in danthonia {Danthonia pilosa) referred to
farther on may be cited in this regard. Other species spread by the
same means are Urfica urens, Acaena novae-zelandiae, and Marnihium
ruhjare (white horehound). Cattle, again, are probably entirely destructiv(\
Phormium soon disappears in their presence, as also does Marrubium. In
Pigeon Bay, for example, the upper portions of the hills are in many places
grey with horehound, whilst the cattle-country immediately below is perfectly
clear. Uiifortunately, cattle will not run in the rocky, broken country on

360 Transactions.

the hill-crests, anc] liere Marrubium has become the worst pest of the dis-
trict. It remains to be seen whether with time it will work itself out.
Probably in the absence of sheej) it is but littlt> distributed. Cattle also, as
is well known, rapidly destroy the undergrowth in bush country. Rabbits,
also, oir the area dealt with are ])robably almost entirely destructive in
their action. They reach many places which are either inaccessible to sheep
or at least not usually grazed by them. On some of the rockv points of
the Lyttelton Hills, whicji would otherwise be plant-sanctuaries, scarcely a
plant is left untouched by them. Shrubs and grasses are all grazed, and
only the inaccessible chasmophytes escape. Hares apparently are much
less destructive than rabbits, because they are in smaller numbers, do not
burrow, and do not frequent cliffs and rocks. The tendencv of these
agents is not o]ily to reduce the number of indigenous species, but also, as
a rule, to limit the numbers of the individuals in the remaining specie'^.

Certain species, however, are apparently on the increase as the result of
changed conditions. Such are Danthonia pilosa, D. semiannularis, Acaena
novae-zelandiae, Coriaria sarmentosa, Cotula squalida, Dicho)if]r(( hrevisepala,
and Oxalis corniculatii. The two last-mentioned invade even cultivated
ground, and 1 have seen 0. conn'culata growing about the steps of the public
buildings of Christchurch.

During a succession of dry seasons the grasses mentioned become common
in garden lawns on the hills, and replace temporarily or permanentlv the
shallow-rooted lawn-grasses. In dry seasons, too, rabbits attack the bark
of trees, and thus assist the drought in its attack upon the vegetation.
Melicytus ramiflorus, Schefflera digit at a, and Nothopanax arboreum are
amongst the first to suffer, particularly when standing in the o]ien.

The Plant Associations.

Further discussion of such changes may be postponed for tlie present,
and taken when we come to consider shortly the chief of the indigenous
plant societies. They may be roughly classified as follows : —

(1.) Salt marsh

(2.) Salt meadow

(3.) Coastal rocks !• Coastal.

(4. Sand-dunes

(5.) Coastal scriib '

(6.) Tussock-grasslands.

(7.) Inland clift" and rock.

(8.) Forest.

(9.) Lowland scrub and heath.

(10.) Subalpine scrub.

(11.) Subalpine grasslands.

(1) (2) The Salt Marsh aii<l the Salt Meadow.

These are developed at the head of the tidal flats, and are well seen
at Teddington in Lyttelton Harbour, also on the Sumner Estuary and in
a few other places on the peninsula. At Lake Ellesmere there are vast
extents of brackish marsh and meadow ; but these scarcely come within
the scope of this |)aper. Though some of the species occurring in the por-
tion of the lake adjacent to Kaituna have been listed, no attempt has
been made to exjilore the lake and its borders as a whole. It would
undoubtedly form an interesting field for the botanist, and one as yet

Laing. — Vegetation of Baiih-s I'eniusnla. 361

imperfectly known. The conditions there are somewhat unusual in New
Zealand. However, the ordinaiy salt marsh and meadow of the Banks
Peninsula district do not differ much from those found in adjacent parts of
New Zealand, and they have already been described for the Suumer Estuary
bv Mrs. Jemiings (Miss B. D. Cross).* At Teddington the association is very
similar to that at Heathcote, except that I have seen neither Carex litorosa
nor Scirpus maritimus there, though Scirpus maritimus occurs at Ohinitahi,
at the head of the bay The first plant to be met with in coming in from
the seaward is Salicornia australis, in dense cushions, with a small grass
(Atropis sfricta) growing through the cushions. At a level several inches
liigher appear Samolaa repeiis and SelUera radicans, followed by the sea-
side form of Cotnla dioica. By the side of the tidal guts are Juncus mari-
timus and Leptocarpns simplex, the latter in comparatively small quantity.
The onlv shrub present is Plagianthus divaricatus, which is plentiful on
the tidai flat and close to the coastal rocks where the shallow tidal flat
approaches them.

(3) (4) Saitd-dxnes and Coastal Rocks.

There are scarcely any sand-dunes on the peninsula, except those at
Sumner, and only small areas of sandy beaches ; consequently there are
few sand-plants to be noted. So far as I know, Spinifex and Pimelea
arenaria are quite wanting; and tici r pus f rondos as, Conrolruhts Soldanella,
Euphorbia glauca, Carex pumila, and other sand-plants by no means conimon.
On the coastal rocks Mesembryanfhemum australe is abundant, with Tetra-
(/oida expansa and T. trigyna, often trailing downward for many feet.
Rhayodia nutans occurs less commonly, and more rarely still Lobelia anceps
and Lepidium oleraceum. Vittadinia australis and Tillaea Sieberiana are
abundant here and inland ; but I have seen Tillaea moschata in only one
place. On the wetter rocks Samolus repens and iSelliera radicans reappear,
often with the fern usually called Asplenium obtusatum, a species which
requires further study.

The drier coastal rocks and the adjacent clay banks, as has been
pointed out to me by Professor Wall, are the home of certain species of
rai'er ferns, and produce a little plant association which is as uncommon
as it is interesting. In addition to Asplenium obtusatum and A. luciduni
the following ferns, though found elsewhere, particularly haunt sucli
situations : Cheilanthes Sieberi, Nothoclaena distans, Polystichum Richardi.
Polypodium [Cyclophorus) serpens, and Adiantum qffine. The last-mentioned
has, of course, been much destroyed by picknickers and pleasure-seekers,
and 1 know only one or two spots at the edge of Lyttelton Harbour wliere
it may be now obtained, though it is common in the less frequented bays
of the peninsula.

Professor Wall writes thus to me : ' There is a very peciihar and special
feature of the blufts and steep slopes surrounding Lyttelton Harbour, which
deserves mention. A hard, Ijarien rim of baked clay occurs between the
tussock land above and the rock below, in which grow Cheilanthes Sieberi
and Nothoclaena distans. Pottsf describes the formation very exactly, calling
the material ' cob.' In many places this rim is now invaded and over-
shadowed by other vegetation, but the pri]nitive state is still to be seen

* Observations on some New Zealand Halophytes, Trans. A'.Z. J tist., vol. 43,
p. .54.5. 1911.

t T. H. Potts, Out in the Open, p. 77, 1882.

362 Transactions.

here and there. A good example is on the north-eastern side of Quail
Island. Practically no plant grows in this sort of place except these two
ferns."

(5) The Coastal Scrub.

The coastal scrub is characterized by such species as Oharia Foisteri,
Dodonaea viscosa, and Macropiper excclsum, though any of these may be
found inland. Angelica geniculafa also occurs in abundance here, and on
the peninsula at any rate is not often found in the interior of the forest.
Other common species, which, however, have no claim to be considered
distinctly coastal, are Muehlehbeckia complexa, Coprosma rohusta, and C.
Cunninghamii (showing much leaf-variation) ; whilst both species of Lepto-
spermum frequently come down almost to the water's edge. At one time
also there were groves of karaka, w-hich apparently were to be found from
Decanter Bay round to Okain's, and possibly faither. On the open flats,
as at Birdling's Flat, Muehlenbeckia complexa in rounded clumps, Discaria
toumatOH, and Cannichaelia suhulata frequently become prominent features
in the landscape ; but, again, these are not distinctively coastal, though
occurring near the sea.

(6) The Tussock-grasslands.

These were originally found only where the hills were directly exposed
to the action of the drying north-west wind, or where they were sheltered
from the moist easterlies but met the full strength of the cold south-
wester. The easterly winds — the prevailing winds of the peninsula — are
much less arid than the north-wester, and less violent and cold than the
south-wester ; so they have interfered but little with forest growth. On
the other hand, the area of exposure to the north-wester is well defined by
the tussock belts of the north-western faces of the peninsula. The examina-
tion of such a point as Adderley Head well illustrates this contention. The
tussock on the Lyttelton side is often withered, while the herbage on the
Port Levy side is C|uite green ; the rainfall on both sides must be the same.
Wakaroa Head, the eastern point of Pigeon Bay, equally well if not better
proves the same point. Here, no doubt, the rainfall is somewhat higher
than at Lyttelton Heads, so that it is well above the minimum required
for forest-production ; yet the forest extended along the eastern side of
Pigeon Bay only so far as it was sheltered from the direct action of the
north-west wind. The projecting end of the point reproduces exactly the
vegetation of the northern slopes of Mount Pleasant, even down to the
occurrence of the rare Gymnogramme rntaefolia in both situations, and the
less rare but still xerophytic Clematis afoliata. Hence we must expect
to find tussock-grasslands wherever tlie slopes of the hills are exposed to
the full violence of the north-wester. This plant association is therefore
to be found from Godley Head to Birdling's Flat. As far as Dyer's Pass
there are tussock pastures, with scrub only in the gullies : to the westward
there is tussock on the open hillsides and headlands, while somewhat heavier
forest at one time existed in the valleys. Owing to the clearing of the
" bush,'"' tussock is now found in many places where once there was forest.
Natural tussock-grasslands are again to be found on the northern slopes of
Mount Herbert and One Tree Hill, on the far side of Lyttelton Harbour,
though in the deeper and more sheltered valleys of Purau and Charteris
Bay there was forest. Li the latter place it has been removed only during
the last ten years. The characteristic herbs of the tussock pasture are
Poa caespitosa, Danthonia pilosa, Scleranthus biflorus. Oxalis corniculata,

Laixg. — Vegetation of Banks Peninsula. 363

Dichondra hreinsepala, AciphyUa Colensoi : and on slopes exposed to sea-
breezes Cofxla Haasfii and sonietimes Convolvulus eruhescens. The most
characteristic shrubs are Cannichaelia subulala and Discaria toumatou ;
whilst amongst rocks Muehlenbeckia complexa, Coprosma crassifolia, Sophora
prostrata, and a few other sjiecies are occasionally found. Particularly
towards tlie hilltops Hijwenanihera crassifolia and Corokia Cotoneastev
abound.

In most places these grasslands are burnt annually in the late winter
or earlv spring — as soon, indeed, as there is a day on which they will burn.
This burning has been done right up to the tojj of Mount Herbert, and has
been carried on for the last fifty or sixty years. When done in the months
of July, August, and September the tops only of the Poa caespitosa are
burnt ; but when fires occur later in the year the tussock is often burnt out
and killed. As a result the Poa tussocks become less numerous and remain
smaller than they were, and in many places a mat of the wiry Danthonia
pilosa forms between them. This is a distinctly aggressive species, no
place short of actual rock being too hard for it to grow in. It even invades
the cocksfoot lands and occupies the drier ridges there. It has thus pro-
ceeded at least as far eastward as Pigeon Bav, where it now occupies lands
once covered ^\'ith more valuable introduced grasses. In the north-west
areas it may be the most suitable grass available ; but it certainly ought, if
possible, to be kept out of the richer cocksfoot lands.

Poa Colensoi var. intermedia now exists in comj)aratively small quantity,
and tends more and more to be confined to the hilltops, ledges on rocky
faceS; and similar situations. Even there, however, on the Lyttelton HiUs
it is often eaten down by rabbits. Tliis pest is not prevalent on the
peninsula, and a rabbit-proof fence between Teddington and Gebbies Valley
helps to prevent them reaching there in large numbers. Festuca rubra,
Agropijron scabrum, and Danthonia semiannularis also occur, tliougli in
smaller quantities.

Between Bii'dling's Flat and Timutimu Head, on the ridges and flat
exposed points, the same tussock formation is repeated. Tliough the valleys
were forested, yet the character of the vegetation is much more xerophytic
than on the easterly faces of the peninsula, and the conditions of the
Lyttelton Hills, with their vegetation, are closely reproduced,

(7) Inland Clij] and Rock.

Owing to the structure of the hills, rocky cliffs and faces are abundant,
and there is a well-developed and highly specialized rock- vegetation, vary-
ing considerably with the altitude and aspect. It may be readilv studied
on the Lyttelton Hills up to a height of 1,500 ft. On the drier rocks with
a northerly aspect are found Hymeiianthera crassifolia, Corokia Cotoneaster,
Sophora prostrata, and usually near the sea Clematis ajoliata, as the most
characteristic shrubs. Amongst ferns and herbaceous plants the following
occur in such situations : Gijmnogramme rutaejolia, Polystickmn Richardi,
Cheilanthes Siebcri, Chenopodium. triandrum, Linmn monogynum,, Epilobium
cinereum, Senecio lautus, and more rarely Rhagodia nutans. A traverse of
the hills — a distance perhaps of not more than 50 yards — to the moister
rocks on the southern side shows a very different and unique vegetation.
The most characteristic shrub is now Veronica Lavaudiana. Metrosideros
hypericifolia and Cyathodes acerosa also occur ; whilst the ferns already
mentioned are replaced by Poly podium grannnitidis. and on the highest
peaks shrivelled specimens of Hymenophylluni niultifidum and occasionally

364 Transactio/is.

other species of Hijmenojjhyllum are to be found. The most characteristic
|)lant, however, is a species of Senecio, which, as Wall has shown,
between Lyttelton Heads and Gebbie"s Pass is *S'. saxijmyoides, but else-
wliere is Senecio lagopus in a large and well-developed form. Veronica
Lavaudiana is found above 800 ft. only, but Senecio saxijragoides comes
occasionally down to sea-level, though usually found above 800 ft. In
places also Angelica montana, Anisotome Enysii {]), Earina suaveolens,
Libertia grandiflora, and Raoulia glabra become members of the rock asso-
ciation ; but these species are to be found on all aspects of the hill, and,
with the exception of the plant here called Anisotome Enysii, can scarcely
be called distinctive species. This Senecio - Veronica Lavaudiana associa-
tion is highly characteristic of Banks Peninsula, and is met with nowhere
else. Above 1,500 ft. the distinction between the vegetation of rock-faces
with northern and southern aspects tends to disappear. Dracophyllum
aGicularijolmm var. uniflorum now becomes a highly characteristic shrub
of the cliffs and rocky faces, and the subal})ine species, to be described
later, begin to appear.

To see the lower subalpine element at its best one may go to a cliff on
the south-west face of a peak — apparently nameless — between Cass Peak
and Cooper's Knobs. This hill is under 1,600 ft., but has an unsheltered
exposure towards the south-west, and this probably accounts for the great
variety of plants to be found on its face. Amongst the smaller forms
may be mentioned Hydrocotyle microphylla, Colobanthus Miielleri, Myosotis
pygmaea, Polypodium australe var. pmnila, Polypodium grammitidis (well
developed), Hynienophyllvm multifidum, Geranimn. sessilijlorum, Helichn/smn
heUidioides. On tlie Lyttelton Hills these species are not to be met with
at the lower levels, though elsewhere on the peninsula, where the rainfall
is higher, they come down much lower. Lycopodinm Jastigiafum, Veronica
Lavaudiana, Gaultheria antipoda (the erect form), and Dmco])hyUum uni-
florum also occur here in abundance.

(8) The Forest.

Distribution oj the Forest Areas. — In pre-European times Banks Pen-
insula was clad with dense forest, except on the hills overlooking the
plains and between Timutimu Head and Birdling's Flat, where the forests
were chiefly confined to valleys and hillto[)S. From Lyttelton Heads to
Kennedy's Bush there were no large forests, and between Kennedy's Bush
and Little River the forests were not continuous. The hills on the southern
side of Lyttelton Harbour were also in part bare ; from Little River to
Akaroa, and from Akaroa along the outer bays to Port Levy, there was an
almost continuous sheet of forest. Here and there the bald heads of some
of the higher peaks rose above the forest line, as in the case of Mount
Herbert and Mounts Sinclair and Fitzgerald ; but elsewhere the forest
wave swept over the hilltops, and was continuous except where broken
by cliffs. Certain trees . bundant on the western ranges, which probably
require a rainfall of 50 in., are conspicuously absent from the area : such
are Metrosideros lucida, Weinmannia racemosa, and Pkyllocladiis alpinus.

Types oj Forest. — The forest is of two main types — (a) the podocarp
forest, and {h) the beech forest.* The podocarp forest can again be sub-
divided as to altitude into the lower podocar}) and the upper podocarp-cedar

* This is not further described here, but see R. ]M. Laing, Trans. X.Z. Inst., vol. 46,
p. 58, 1914.

Lai^g.— Vegetation of Buiih-s Peninsula. 365

forest. It is characterized by the presence of certain taxads — viz., Podo-
cnrpiis totara, Podocarpus spicatus, and in smaller quantity Podocarpiis
dacrydioides, as chief timber-trees. In the upper podocarp forest, on the
tops of the ridges above 2,000 ft. P. totara is replaced by P. Hallii, P. dacry-
dioides is absent, and Lihocedrus BidwiUii is found. This upper forest is
found chiefly on the tops and sides of the ridges between Kaituna Valley
and thr Akaroa - Le Bon's dividing ridge. Here it passes into the beech
forest.

The Lower Podocarp Forest. — The lower podocarp forest is remarkably
imiform throughout, and cannot be further subdivided by reference to the
common species. The localization of some of the rarer species suggests,
however, a further subdivision into a seaward area lying between Port Levy
and Akaroa, and a landward area lying between Lyttelton and Little River.
The former of these areas is somewhat warmer and moister than the other.
Here are to be found, though not uniformly distributed throughout the area,
Gorynocarpus laevigata, Rhopalostylis sapida, Coprostna lucida (large-leaved
form), Cyathea medullaris, and a form of Sophora tetrapfera approaching to
but different from the East Cape *S'. f/randijlora With the exception of
Cyathea medullaris, these are plants which fincl their southernmost limit here.
On the landward side these species are absent, but at one time Dacrydium
cupressinum seems to have occurred. Certain rare species also occur here
more commonly than on the eastern side. Thus both at Mount Pleasant
and at Lake Forsyth there occur the following species, which do not
reappear again together, so far as I know, elsewhere on the peninsula :
Olearia frag rant issima. Teucridiiim parviflorxm, Nothopanax anomahim, and
Microlaena polynoda. Other localized species no doubt exist in the pen-
insula lowland forests, though it is difficult now to be sure that they were
not at one time more widely distributed. Amongst these may be men-
tioned Pseudopanax ferox, now chiefly confined to the western area :
Australina pusilla, in both areas ; and Pariefaria, in both areas. The dis-
tinctions of areas here made are not intended to be rigidly insisted on ;
they are, however, suggestive of some differences in primitive vegetation.
But it is too late now to endeavour to define them more accurately, as
we are not sufficiently well acquainted with the distribution of the species
of sixty years ago. Certain species have undoubtedly disappeared since
Raoul's time, and others have become very rare. These may be determined
from the accompanying list.

The taxads are the only large timber-trees common in the lower
podocarp forest. Griselinia littoralis, however, often forms short, knotted
trunks, sometimes 4 ft. through, but generally hollow. As the altitude
increases, the forest-trees become somewhat smaller. Podocarpus spicatus,
though not confined to the lower portion of the forest, is at its best and
inost abundant below 1,500 ft. Large trees of Podocarpus totara (some-
times in association with P. Hallii) are found up to 2,500 ft. ; but in the
upper parts of the " bush " Griselinia tends to replace the pines, and on
the ridges and towards the summit Podocarpus Hallii and Lihocedrus
BidwiUii appear. The former is known on the peninsula as " mountain-
totara," and, though much valued as a timber, is considered inferior to
P. totara. The white-pine is not, I think, found above 1,500 ft. Towards
the upper limit of the forest the number of species is reduced and the
specimens are stunted, until it finally gives place to a poorly developed
subalpine scrub.

The smaller trees of the forest are the same all over the peninsula to a
remarkable extent, and, indeed, most of them are common as far south

366 Transactions.

as the Bluff. Griselinia littoralis, Melicytus ramijlorus, Carpodetus serratus.
Pennant ia conjmbosa, Sophora microphyUa, Nothopanax arhoreum, Schefflera
digitata, Aristotelia racemosa, Fuchsia excorticata, Pittospjorum engenioides,
P. tenuifolium, and Hedycarya dentata are amongst the most abundant.
These support an abundant growth of climbers, which in some places render
the forest almost impenetrable. The most frequent are species of Rubus,
Pnrsonsia, Clematis, and Muehlenbeckia ; less common are Rhipogonum^
Tetrapathaea, and Metrosideros hypericifolia. In the scrub which is found
interspersed with the forest-trees are Drimys colorata, various species of
Coprosma, Myrtus ohcordata, Melicope simplex, and a few other jilants.
On the forest-floor are Blechnum discolor, and PolysticJmm vestitum in large
quantities. By the side of the forest-streams Blechnum fluviatile, Blechnum
lanceolatum, Asplenium, hulhiferum, and Blechnum capense are the most
abundant species of ferns. In the darker creeks Leptopteris hymenophylloides
and Blechnum Patersoni appear. As a tree-parasite Loranthus micranthus is
abundant, while Tupeia antarctica is much less common. There are, too,
as in all parts of New Zealand, niany epiphytic ferns : Cyclophorus serpens,
Asplenium falcatum, Asplenium flaccidum, and Polypodium diversifolium
are common in such situations. On exposed windy ridges the forest tends
to pass out into the heath.

The Upper Podocarp-Cedar Forest .— -Through the centre of the peninsula,
at an altitude of somewhat over 2,000 ft., runs a narrow belt of forest in
which Podocarpus Hallii and Libocedrus Bidwillii are the predominant
species. At its upward edge in places — e.g., Mounts Fitzgerald and
Sinclair — this passes into a still narrower belt of subalpine scrub, pro-
bably not more than 100 or 200 yards in width, and not well defined.
The absence of lowland trees, such as Myoporum, Dodonaea, and tree-ferns
further differentiates this forest from that of the lowland area ; otherwise
it is very similar. Griselinia littoralis, Drimys colorata. Fuchsia excorticata,
Nothopanax arboremn, and certain species of Coprosma are here in
increased abundance, along with several species of Rubus.

The Destruction of the Forest. — Unfortunately, however, there are only
scraps of the forest left. Most of it has been destroyed with the advance
of settlement. Possibly 10 per cent, of the big trees were used for timber,
and the rest wastefully burnt. Of the extensive and almost continuous forest
that once blanketed the peninsula from Little River round the coast to
Pigeon Bay only scraps are left in the valleys and on tlie tops of the ridges,
and practically everywhere these remnants are run through by cattle. This
means that all the forest will be destroyed except for a few small and
imperfect reserves. The destruction took place in the half - century
between 1850 and 1900, and it is now practically complete. The largest
area still forested is on the southern side of Mount Herbert. It is some
two miles in length, and lies at an altitude of from 1,500 ft. to 2,500 ft.
It is in too higli and too bleak a situation to show the lower podocarp
forest at its best, but it contains well-preserved areas of the podocarp-cedar
forest and the subalpine scrub.

Replacement of Vegetation in Forest Areas. — Where the bush land has
not been sown with cocksfoot, but natural causes have been allowed to
provide a secondary growth, considerable areas of bracken soon appear,
and this in its turn is often replaced by heath, consisting chiefly of the
two common species of manuka. Such areas are best seen where the
bush was early destroyed by Maoris, settlers, or even by accident, as in
Barry's Bay, Duvauchelle's Bay, Little River, Kaituna, and Port Levy.

Laing. — Vegetation of Bankx Peninsii/u. 367

Where the bush was partly burnt, or burnt patolies occurred in the
middle of the forest, fire weeds such as Aristotelia racemosa, Solanum. avicu-
lare, Erechtites prenanthoides, Plagianthus hetulinus, and other fast-growing
])lants appeared, but, owing to the complete destruction of the forest, patches
containing these second-growth species have now also disappeared.

(9) The Lowland Scrub mid Heath.

Not all the scrub and heath areas are areas of second growth. There are
scrub areas which have not at any recent time been covered with timber-
trees, containing shrubs such as Melicope simplex, Corokia Cotoneaster,
Helichrijsum glomeratum, Coprosma crassifolia, C. areolata, C. virescens,
Myrtus obcordata, Teucridium parviflorum, Mgoporum laeticm ; and as
climbers Clematis foetida, Rubus cissoides, Angelica geniculata, Parsonsia
heterophylla var. rosea ; whilst on the adjacent or interspersed rocks are
Sophora prostrata, Libertia ixioides, and Clematis afoliata. Such scrub occurs
where the rainfall has been too small or the exposure too great to admit of
forest growth. All the species mentioned above occur on Mount Pleasant
(behind Lyttelton) and again at Island Bay, and doubtless elsewhere. It
constitutes a plant society which is characteristic of Banks Peninsula, and
the same combination, so far as I know, does not occur elsewhere. Similar
associations are to be found near the wharf at Port Levy, and also at Caton's
Bay, though not so fully developed as in the two localities mentioned.

With the scrub area I have associated the heath, which occurs at
Governor's Bay, Port Levy, Duvauchelle's Bay, Barry's Bay, and Wainui,
and is perliaps as well developed at Wainui as anywhere on the peninsula.
Here it consists of Leptospermum ericoides (often covered with the parasite
Viscum, salicornioides), smaller quantities of L. scoparium, Gaultheria antipoda
(the erect form), Cyathodes acerosa, Lycopodium volubile, Blechnum capense
(a small form), Pteridium esculenturii, Pteris scaberula, and the orchids
Thelymitm longifolia and Pterostylis Banksii. Pseudopanax crassifolium
occurs in it scantily, and elsewhere Leucopogon fasciculatum is a common
constituent. Here also RaouUa subsericea appears exceptionally, and at an
unusually low level of not more than 500ft. A somewhat similar heath
may be seen at the back of Mount Karetu.

(10) The Subalpine Scrub.
This consists, in addition to some species from the upper limits of the
forest, of Olearia cymbifolia (forma), 0. ilicifolia, with rare specimens of
Aristotelia fruticosa and Gaultheria antipoda (the prostrate form). Veronica
buxifolia was once found in it. This association is best seen on the old
Purau line between Mounts Herbert and Fitzgerald, and again on the up})er
edge of the Mount Herbert bush. Species that might be expected and do
not occur are Coprosma foefidissima, C. cimeata, and Ve^-onica propinqua.
Pentachondra pumila has been found on one or two hilltops. The poor
development of the subalpine scrub may be due to an insufficient supply
of moisture and a too high summer temj)erature. Near Dunedin it is much
better developed, and includes two species of Dacrydium and Phyllocladus
alpinus. These taxads are absent from Banks Peninsula.

(11) The Subalpine Grasslands.
Above 2,500 ft. there is to be found a distinct subalpine pasture.*
It is characterized by the presence in abundance of Ourisia macrophylla

* See also Trans., N.Z. Inst., vr.l. 4(). p. 58, U)14.

368 Transactions. /

(forma) , Drapetes Dieffenbachii, and Anisotome aromatica. Euphratiia zelandica,
Forsfera tenella, and Oreomyrrhis andicola also occur, but not so abundantly.
This formation is found on all the tops from Mount Sinclair to Castle
Rock, but for some reason does not occur on French Peak (2,600 ft.) to
Saddle Mount (2,700 ft.). It reappears on Mount Bossu (2,500 ft.) and
the neighbouring Carew's Peak (2,600 ft.), and traces of it reappear on
Brasenose (2,500 ft.) behind Akaroa Township. Other species of the
subalpine pasture are Danthonia Raoidii var. rigida, Aciphijlla Colensoi,
Raoulia glabra, and R. subsericea. Danthonia Cunninghamii and Gunnera
monoica are also sometimes to be found. This little subalpine fiorula
is, of course, as much isolated as if it stood on an island oif the coast,
and it is somewhat difficult to account for its presence here. Either
it has been brought by birds or winds, or else it is a remnant of a
vegetation that in glacial times reached to the sea-coast and extended
widely over the country. We have not the data at present to solve the
problem, and it can only be considered in connection with the general
geological evidence and with the distribution of alpine species throughout
New Zealand. It is, of course, to be expected that in this latitude wind-
swept mountain-tops should carry some subalpine species above 2,500 ft.
Such species are found near Dunedin as low as 1,500 ft., and in Stewart
Island at sea-level. In some cases, however {e.g., View Hill, French
Peak), the forests were able to maintain themselves on hilltops up to
2,500 ft. This may be due to edaphic conditions, for these peaks are
perhaps less rocky than those which are bare.

Vertical Distribution.

We have now considered briefly the general distribution of the indi-
genous vegetation on the peninsula. By way of brief recapitulation, it may
be pointed out that in walking from the edge of Lake Ellesmere to the
summit of Mount Herbert one would pass through practically all the plant
associations described. Starting with the salt marsh and salt meadow,
these follow in succession : the coastal scrub, a heath, a totara - black-pine
forest, a Podocarpus Hallii - Libocedrus forest, and a narrow Ijelt of sub-
alpine scrub, and finally the subalpine pasture. The same series would
])e passed through in ascending from the beach at Pigeon Bay to the
summit of Mount Sinclair, or from the shore of Lake Forsyth to the top
of Mount Fitzgerald.

Endemism.

The area is so isolated that it might be expected to show a certain
amount of endemism. This is most readily illustrated by the three
species Celmisia Mackaid, Veronica Lavaudiana, and Senecio saxifragoides,
Celmisia Machaui has been rejjorted from Mount Fyffe by H. B. Kirk,
but the report has not been confirmed ; and Veronica Lavaudiana has been
recorded by Lyall, W. T. \j. Travers, and J. B. Armstrong from the river-beds
of the Canterbury Plains. Now, F. Lavaudiana is a true cliasmophyte, and
[ should be very much surprised to see it growing in the shingle-bed of
one of our Canterbury rivers. It might perhaps be expected in the moun-
tain gorges of these rivers, but I have not seen it there, and much doubt
its occurrence elsewhere than on Banks Peninsula. Travers records it
from the Ashley, but though I have been at many points of the Ashley
river-system I have seen nothing resembling V . Lavaudiana there. A form
of V. Raoidii certainly occurs at White Rock in small quantity ; and

L-\ix<i. — Vegeiation of Banl-s Pt/u'ii-tvhi. 369

V. Lavandiana could scarcely, if occurring, have been completely over-
looked by Cockayne, Wall, and nay self. I must therefore consider the
above three species as endemic on the peninsula till more definite evidence
is brought to the contrary.

Cotula Haastii is another species which may be endemic on the
peninsula ; though recorded from the plains by Haast, it has not been
found there recently. There are other plants which are here represented
by varietal forms — e.g., Aciphylla .squarrosa, Angelica monfana, Anisotome
E)ii/sii, Mijosotis australis, Ourisia macrophi/lla, Veronica LijaUii, (fee. : but
as it is not my intention to deal with critical species in this paper I am
leaving these out of consideration here. Enough has been said to show
that there is sufficient endemism in the area to suggest its isolation for a
long time from any other portion of the country.

Species at their Southernmost Limit.

The following eighteen species probably here reach their southernmost
limit on the eastern coast. Some are to be found farther south on the
west coast. I give, where possible, some notes on their northward dis-
tribution.

Alectryon excelsuni. — Abundant to the north of the Hurunui, and pro-
bably to be found in coastal valleys as far south as the mouth of the
Waipara (Double Corner).

Angelica, rosaejolia. — If correctly reported by Raoul from Akaroa this
shows a remarkablv discontinuous distribution, as it is not otherwise known
outside the North Island.

Clematis Colensoi. — Found also on the foothills to the west ; ocal on
the peninsula.

Cordyline indivisa. — Does not occur on the coastal hills of North
Canterbury, and I have seen no record of it from the Kaikouras, where,
however, it may be expected to occur.

Corynocarpus laevigata. — Common on the Kaikoura coast and as far
south as Gore Bay ; a single tree at Manuka Bay, north of the Hurunui ;
but does not, I think, occur between the mouth of the Hurunui and
Banks Peninsula.

Cyathea CunningJiamii. — If the determination be correct this is a
remarkable southern extension of its range on the (^ast of the South
Island, but in Westland it extends beyond the Big Wanganui River.

Dodoiiaea viscosa. — Common along the coast to the north of Pegasus

^^y- ....

Griselinia lucida. — I have not seen this south of Banks Peninsula, and

doubt its occurrence, though reported in the Manual as not uncommon as

far south as the Bluff. To the north of Banks Peninsula I have noted its

occurrence at Manuka Bay, where typical specimens are to be seen on

rocks, just to the north of the mouth of the Hurunui. It is not reported

in the Dunedin Field Club's Catalogue (1916).

Hedycarya arborea. — On the Kaikoura coast, but I have not seen it
between the Amuri Bluf¥ and Banks Peninsula. It is curious that on the
west coast it should occur as far south as Preservation Inlet, but it does
not pass beyond Banks Peninsula here. Possibly the arid Canterbury
Plains have proved a barrier to its southward progress.

Leacopogon faaciculatum. — Occurs inland on Mount Grey dt)wns and in
the Lee Valley.

370 Transaci ions. I

Mariscus ustulatus. — Occurs at Gore Bay. It is reported from North
Otago by Buchanan, but this requires confirmation.

Macwpi^Mf excelsum. — Common on the coastal hills to the north, but
not on the plains.

Fittosporum obcordatum. — If Raoul's Akaroa record is correct this dis-
appearing species shows remarkable discontinuity of distribution. Only
known elsewhere from near Kaitaia.

Rhopaloslylis sapida. — Does not occur on the coastal hills of North
C*anterbury, but is found on the Kaikoura coast as far south at least as
Hundalee.

Rhcujodia nutans. — Not uncommon near the coast at least as far south
as Banks Peninsula.

Spircmthes ausfraUs. — Not known elsewhere on the east coast of this Island.

Tetrapathaea nustmlis. — I do not know the nearest point where this plant
is to be found north of Banks Peninsula, but it does not occur in northern
Canterbury, nor, I think, at Kaikoura.

Zoysia pungens is found on the beaches immediately to the north, and
shows no discontinuity of distribution.

It thus appears that Banks Peninsula is the southern terminus of a
large number of northern sjjecies. On the other hand, few if any southern
species find here their northern limit ; Olearia fragrantissima is perhaps
one. This suggests a southern drift of species ; for, of course, most of the
northern i^ecies could live as well on the Otago coast as in Banks Pen-
insula. On the west coast, where there has been no such barrier as the long
treeless stretch between Banks Peninsula and Timaru, some of these species
have drifted much farther south — e.g., Cordylme indivisa, Hedycarya arhorea,
and Rhopalostylis sapida. Obviously the frosts of the plains tend to inhibit
the occurrence of the more tender species.

The Relationships of the Banks Peninsula Florula.

The Forest. — It will be clear from what has been said that the forest
of Banks Peninsula is an outlier of Cockayne's North-eastern Botanical
District. No. 8 in the map of New Zealand* showing proposed botanical
districts. It does not bear any close relationship to the forests of the
Canterbury foothills. The nearest hills are those to the north and north-
north-west — e.g., Mounts Oxford, Karetu, and Grey. Here all the species
finding their southernmost limit on Banks Peninsula are absent, with the
exception of Clematis Colensoi and Leucopogon fasciculatum ; and the timber-
trees belong chiefly to the genus Nothofagus. It is true that Podocarpus
totara is present in places on the foothills in small quantity, and P. spicafus
and P. dacrydioides in still smaller quantities, but they are nowhere, as on
the peninsula, the dominant species.

We get, however, to the westward at Mount Peel a mixed podocarp
forest in which the above-mentioned species predominate, but it, too, dift"er.s
much from the Banks Peninsula forest. This, of course, does not contain
the species finding their southernmost limit on Banks Peninsula, but it
contains an unusual variety of species, and amongst them several not
found on the peninsula, such as Nothopanax simplex, AristoteUa Colensoi,
Gaya Lyallii var. ribifoUa, and Hoheria lanceolata. It thus appears that
the Banks Peninsula forest must be regarded as an outlier of the Kaikoura
coastal forest, which it closely resembles.

* Tra7is. N.Z. Imt., vol. 49, p. iVS, 1917.

Laing. — Vegetation of Banks Peninsula. 371

The Siibalpine Area.- — This area, as might be expected, is related to the
subalpine area of Mounts Grey and Karetu, hills of about the same height
as Mount Herbert, and little more than thirty miles away to the north.
In both localities Drapetes Dieffenhachii, Anisotome aromatica, and Olearia
cymhifolia are amongst the first subalpine forms to appear above the forest
line. Mount Oxford is higher and has a much more varied alpine vegeta-
tion ; and even Mount Karetu from 1,500 ft. and upwards shows species
not occurring on the peninsula. Amongst them are Coprosma repens,
Celmisia spectabilis, Anisotmne filifolium, Exocarpus Bidwillii, and Senecio
geminatus. No doubt this is due to the fact that we have here to deal
with a nuich larger subalpine area than on the peninsula. So far as 1
know, however, Ourisia niacrophyUa, Forsiera tenella, and Oreomyrrhis andi-
cola do not occur in the Mount Grey district. If further search does not
reveal their presence, their absence might seem to indicate that the sub-
alpine florula of the peninsula contains species belonging to an older alpine
flora, not now existent in the neighbourhood. None of the plants referred
to are species likely to have been recently brought there, or to have been
brought in the first place by wind or birds. Still, we have not enough
evidence here to come to any definite conclusions, and the matter must
be left in abeyance. This review of the vegetation of Banks Peninsula
must now be concluded, with the hope that before the present remnants
of the primitive flora disappear every opportunity will be taken by local
students to complete the work here outlined.

Before concluding this section I must thank those New Zealand
botanists from whom I have received much kind assistance. Mr. Cheese-
man has identified a number of species for me, particularly of ferns ; as
also has Mr. Petrie, who has given me much help in connection with the
genera Coprosma and Uncinia. I owe much to the kindly suggestions
and advice of Dr. Cockayne, who has studied the vegetation of the Port
Hills ; and Professor Wall, who has during several years closely examined
the flora of the peninsula, has kindly revised the distribution of the species,
and, as will be seen, made numerous additions to the list of localities given.
I am particularly indebted to him for assistance with the ferns and with
the genus Epilohium. I believe that the list as it now stands is fairly
complete, and that ihe number of subsequent additions will be com-
paratively small.

Bibliographical List of Chief Books and Articles consulted.

1846. A. Raoul, Choix de plantes de la Nouvelle-Zelande.
1853. Sir J. D. Hooker, Flora Novae-Zelaiuliae.

1864. Handbook of the New Zealand Flora.

1870. J. F. Armstrong, On the Vegetation of the Neighbourhood 'of

Christchurch, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 2, p. 118.
1880. J. B. Armstrong, A Short Sketch of the Flora of the Province of

Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 12. ]>. 325.
1882. T. H. Potts, Out in the Open.
1899. T. Kirk, Students' Flora.

1906. T. F. Cheeseman, Manual of the New Zealand Flora.
1910. Miss B. D. Cross, Observations on some New Zealand Halo^jhvtes,

Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, p. 545.
1914. R. M. Laing, On a Subalpine Element in the Flora of Banks

Peninsula, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 46, p. 56.

372 TranmcfioixH.

1914. Miss L. A. Suckling, The Leaf-anatomy of some Trees and Shrubs

growing on the Port Hills, Christchurch , Trans. N.Z. Inst..
vol. 46, p. 178.

1915. L. CocKAYXE, Provisional List of Ferns and Flowering-plants of

the Port Hills, Report on Scenery -preservation (1914-15).
1918. A. Wall, Ferns of the Port Hi'Us, Lyttelton Times. 13th Julv,

1918.
1918. On the Distribution of Senecio saxifragoides Hook. f.. and its

Relation to Senecio lagopus Raoul, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50,

p. 198.

LIST OF INDIGENOUS PLANTS FOUND ON BANKS PENINSULA.
Explanation of Abbreviations and Signs.

1 . Plants marked thus ° {e.g.. °Melicytus micranthus) in the list are those
that I have not collected myself or seen in the collections of others, but are
introduced on the evidence of previous collectors. It may perhaps be
noted that Raoul's list has been very carefully drawn up, and is through-
out reliable. Though the identifications of Mr. J. F. Armstrong's list mav
not always be correct, still some plant can generally be found which the
name represents ; Init in J. B. Armstrong's list there are names of manv
species which obviously do not occur on Banks Peninsula. Some of these
can at once be rejected on external evidence, but in other cases it is
manifestly impossible to say that the plant has not been found on the
peninsula, though its occurrence there may be highly improbable. It is
included in my list if there is any subsidiary evidence to suggest that it mav
have become extinct or have been overlooked. These species inquirendae
are marked with a small (^) before the initial letter of the genus — e.g.,
(^)Eleocharis Cunninghamii. This is intended to indicate that there is some
reason to believe that the plant occurs or has occurred on the peninsula, but
tliat it has not been recently found. Similarly the species excludendae —
those plants which, though recorded. ])robably have not been foimd on
the })eninsula, or which have been identified in error — are marked with
a small (') before the initial letter of the genus — e.g., {-)Fimhrisfylis
frondosa. Of course, the line between species inquirendae and species
excludendae is often very indistinct. It is quite possible that some of the
species excludendae may subsequently be found on the peninsula, but the
evidence in their favour does not justify their inclusion at present. Should
they be discovered they can be readily reinstated. Of the species inquirendae,
some are included in my list, and others, where perhaps the evidence for
their occurrence is somewhat weaker, are only noted. In any count of
the list, of course, only those which are definitely included should be
reckoned.

2. Plants whose names are preceded by an asterisk, thus, *AsperelIa
gracilis, have not been found on the Lyttelton Hills — i.e., between Gebbie's
Pass and Lyttelton North Head. Plants not so marked are to be found
or have in the past been found on the Lyttelton Hills. Some are perhaps
now extinct there. It will also be noted that some plants recorded from
the Lyttelton Hills are not recorded from Banks Peninsula ; this in the
majority of cases is probably due to the fact that the district nearer
Christchurch has been more exhaustively examined than the more remote
one. This, however, is not always the case, for Senecio .saxifragoides and
Myosotis australis var. .seem to be confined to the smaller district.

L-VING. — Vfr/cfatio)) of Ba/i/,'s Peninsula. 373

3. Initials as under, which will be n^adily recognized, are used to indicate
records where no details are given. In many cases such records will appear
under synonyms and not under the names now in use.

R.

. M. E. Raoul.

J.

F. A.

J. F. Armstrong

J.

B. A. .

J. B. Armstrong

T.

P.

. . T. H. Potts.

L.

C.

. L. Cockayne.

A.

w.

. . Arnold Wall.

T.

K.

Thomas Kirk.

Where no authority is given for a locality it will be understood that it is
recorded from niy own observations. Occasionally, to avoid confusion, I
have introduced my own initials (R. M. L.). By '' Handbook '" is meant
Hooker's Handhool- of the New Zealand Flora, and by '' MariiiaV Cheese-
man "s Manual of the New Zealand Flora.

4. No doubt there are many localities still to be found for some species.
Some plants may be comparatively common which are recorded from only
one or two places. Where it is not definitely known that the plant is
widespread it is probably better to give exact habitats than make a vague
statement. The list will, I think, be found practically complete as regards
the Lvttelton Hills, but there will doubtless be a few omissions to be filled
in foi' tlie peninsula, particularly in the Cyperaceae and grasses.

A good many varieties and a few critical species require closer
description and identification. It would, however, much increase the
length of this paper to deal with them, and it would, further, require
comparison with forms in other parts of New Zealand. This work lies
outside of the scope of the present article, but it may be hoped that this
discussion will be carried on subsequently by myself or some other botanist.
Anv collector of Banks Peninsula plants should have no difficulty in
identifying the plant referred to in my list. References will be found in
the list to plants requiring further investigation.

FERNS (FILICES).

H ijmenophyllum varum. R. Br. [J. B. A.]

Waikerikikeri : R. M. L. Rajmki : Potts. " Near Christchurch some
of the dwarfer forms may be observed near the top of the small patches
of bush that dot the Native reserve at Rapaki" {Out in the Open, p. 61).

Hymenophyllicm sanguinolentum Hook. f.

Mount Pleasant : A. Wall ! Banks Peninsula : Potts ; J. B. A.

Hyynenophyllum villosum Col.

Castle Rock (Con. Cheeseman).

*°{'^)Hymeno])hyllum australe Willd.
Banks Peninsula : Potts.

°{^)Hymenophyllum cfilatatum Swartz.

Lyttelton Hills : Potts. Banks Peninsula : J. B. A. I have

searched the most secluded gullies on the peninsula in vain for this r^

and the next species. " y. v -'^'-^-

^ /%>v ^OS A/^x>

*°{^)Hy7nenophylhmi demissum Swartz.

Banks Peninsula : Potts ; J. B. A.

AR

X^

374 Transactions.

*Hymenophijlluin flaheUatum Labi 11. [J. B. A.]

Mount Herbert Peak, Peraki Reserve : R. M. L.

*°HynienophijIhmi Malingii Metten. [J. B. A.]

" On Libocedrxs Doniana [i.e.. L. Bidwillii], Port Levy " : Potts {Ovt
i)i the Open, p. 73).

°{^)Hyme}iophi/lIum minimum A. Rich.

Rapaki : Potts. Banks Peninsula : J. B. A.

Il/jmetiophijUum. tunhiidgense Smith. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Lvttelton Hills : Potts. Charteris Bay : A. Wall. Dover Castle and
Mount Fitzgerald : R. M. L.

* Hymenophyllum unilaterale Willd.

Long Bay, behind Akaroa ; apparently a new record.
nymeiiophylhmi multifidum Swartz. [J. B. A.]

Clifi" near Cooper's Knobs ; Castle Rock, and Mount Fitzgerald
above 2,000 ft., on rocky southern faces.

*°{^ )H ymenophyllum bivalve Swartz.

Banks Peninsula : Potts ; J. B. A.

Some of the above species are ])robably now extinct on the pen-
insula. J. B. A. records also ('^)H. scabrum; (-)H. pidcherrimum, and
( ^ )//. subtilissimum.

*Trichomanes venosum R. Br. [R. ; T. P. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Balgueri Valley (Akaroa), on tree-fern trunks : R. M. L.

J. B. A. records also {-)T. Iimnile, {-)T. elongatum., {'^)T. {Hymeno-
phyllum) Lyallii, and {-)T. Colensoi ; but their existence on the ])en-
insula is unconfirmed.

Cyathea dealbafa Swartz. [R. : J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; T. P. ; A. W. ; L. C]

Once abundant ; now becoming less common. Tree-ferns have been
laroelv used for Christmas and other decorations in Christchurch, and
now are almost extinct on the Lvttelton Hills, wliere formerly they
abounded.

*Cyathea medullaris Swartz.

Apparently very rare on Banks Peninsula, but a few plants occur in
the remnants of the bush at Waikerikikeri : R. M. L. Akaroa : Raoul

Cyathea CunninghamU Hook. f. {I).

Bush near Cooper's Knobs : A. Wall ! The identification is not
quite certain as yet ; but the fern discovered can scarcely be anything
else, though specimens sent to Mr. T. F. Cheeseman are pronounced to
be ])robably Hemitelia Smithii.

Hemitelia Smithii Hook. f. [J. B. A. ; T. P. ; A. W.]

Akaroa ; Wainui ; Kaituna Valley : Abundant in the last two
places, and probably elsewhere. It just crosses Gebbie's Pass to the
bush just below Cooper's Knobs.

Dicl-sonia squanosa Swartz. (R. ; J. F. A.; J. B. A.; T. P.: L. C. ;
A. W.]

Common on the peninsula, but almost extinct on the Lyttelton Hills.

*Dick.so)iia fibrosa Col. (?).

Wainui. As I have no specimens I am somewluit doubtful of the
identification.

(*)Z). lanata is also recorded by J. B. A. and .T. F. A., and {^)Al.so-
phlla Colensoi by J. B. A. and T. P.

Laing. — Vegefation of Banks Ptn insula. 375

*J)avaUia novae-zealandiae Col. [J. B. A. : T. P.]

Banks Peninsula : William Martin {LijtteUon Times, 17th August,
1918). I believe 1 collected this species some thirty years ago at
Pigeon Bay, but have not seen it recently.

{^)Cystopteris fragilis is recorded by J. B. A. and T. P.

Adiantmn affine Willd. [R. : J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; A. W.]

Becoming rarer, but still growing on the southern faces of the
Lyttelton Hills, Governor's Bay ; in abundance at Nikau Palm Gully
(Akaroa) and Caton's Bay.

*AdianfHm fulvum Raoiil.

Akaroa : Raoul. Charteris Bay : R. M. L. Evidently by no means
common.

*°(^)Adiantum aethiopicmn Linn. [J. B. A.]

Akaroa : Raoi;l. This has not been seen in recent times, and must
be regarded as a doubtful species.

{^)A. hispidtdum has also been reported, but 1 have not seen it.

Hifpolepis fenuifolia Bernh. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Ohinitahi : Potts. Common, usually among stones or boulders above
the bush line ; perhaps extinct on the Lyttelton Hills.

Hijpolepis millefolium Hook. [J. B. A. ; T. P.]

At one time on the Lyttelton Hills above Kaituna. and no doubt
elsewhere.

Hypolepis distans is also re^jorted by J. F. A. and J. B. A.

Cheilanthes Sieheri Kunze. [R. ; J. F. A.: T. P.: J. B. A.; L. C. ;
A. W.]
Abundant in rocky clefts, and under stones, in dry situations.

Cheilanthes tenmfolia Swartz. [R. ; J. B. A. : T. P. ; T. K. ; L. C. : A. W.
Lyttelton Hills and Banks Peninsula, in tussock lands amongst
rocks ; now very rare.

Pellaea rotundijolia Hook. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C. ; A. W.]

Common in forest and by streams ; occasionally under rocks in dry
places.

Pferidium esculenium Cockayne. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C. ; A. \\.]
Everywhere abundant ; often coming up after the burning of the
forest.

*Paesia scaberula Kuhn. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Not common ; Mount Bossu, Wainui : R. M. L.

Histiopteris incisa J. Sm. [.J. F. A. : J. B. A. ; L. C]

Ohinitahi : Potts. Not common ; on the dam[)er hillto[)s, Pigeon
Bay, Lyttelton Hills (probably extinct), Stony Bay.

*\'-)Pteris fremula R. Br. [J. B. A.]
Near Tikao Bay : Potts.

Cheeseman {Manual, p. 793) mentions (^)P. macilenta as recorded
from Banks Peninsula, but has seen no specimens.

*5leo/i»///mt Patersoni Mett. [J. B. A. ; T. P.]
Common in damper forests.

f The species of Blechinun a])]icar in tlie Manual under the generic name Lonuiria.

376 Transactions.

Blechnum discolor Keys. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C. ; A. W.]
Common on the forest-floor.

Blechnum lanceolaticm Sturm. [R. ; J. F. A. ; L. C. ; A. W.]
Common in the forest.

Blechnum ])emia marinmn Kuhn. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; T. P.]

Abundant above 1,000 ft., but not common on the Lyttelton Hills,
and coming down to 300ft. in Pigeon Bay. Heathcote Valley: A.
Wall ; R. M. L. Peak between Kennedy's Bush and Cooper's Knobs :
R. M. L.

Blechnum capense Schlecht. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; T. P. ; L. C. ; A. W.]
Everywhere abundant.

Blechnum flii.viatile Lowe. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C. ; A. W.]
Common by bush-streams.

Blechnum membra iiaceinn Mett. [J. B. A. ; T. P. ; L. C. ; A. W.]

Hay's Bush (Pigeon Bay) and behind Governor's Bay, but not
common.

(^)B. BrDiksii, {-)B. nigrum, and (^)B. durum are given by J. B. A.
(the last probably occurs), and (^)-B. vulcanicum by J. F. A. and T. P.
(Ohinitahi). Cheeseman {Jllustraiions, pi. 240) refers to {^)B. durum
finding its northernmost limit at Banks Peninsula.

Aspleniumflabellifolium Cav. {~ '. A.triste Raoul). [R. ; J. B. A. : J. F. A. :
T. P. -.L. C. ; A. W.]
Abundant under stones and rocks.

*Asplenium adicodoides Raoul. [J. B. A. ; T. P.]
Common on peninsula.

Asplenimn ohtusatum Forst. f. [R. ; T. P. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant on coastal cliffs and rocks ; but it is to be noted that
Wall identifies the coastal Aspleuium of Lyttelton Harbour as a form
of A. lucidum.

Asplenium lucidum Forst. f. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; A. W.]

Common in most ])laces. Vai'. ohliquum is the commonest, and
perhaps the type form, but var. Lyallii also occurs. [Con. L. C]

Asplenium HookerianumCol. [R. ; J.F.A. ; J.B. A. ; T.P. ; A. W. ; L.C]
Common in many forms. (Akaroa is the habitat of the type.)

Asplenium. hulhiferum Forst. f. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. : L. C. : A. W\]

One of the commonest of bush ferns, but much sought after by
tourists and others.

^Asplenium Richardi Hook. f. |R. : J. B. A.]

Mount Herbert : Potts. Waikerikikeri. and doubtless elsewhere :
R. M. L.

Asplenium flaccid um Forst. f. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; T. P. : L. C. ;
A. W.]
Abundant on forest-trees.

J. B. A. and Potts add OA. Irichomanes, which I have not seen.

Poli/stichum vestitum Presl. (= Aspidium aculeatum Swartz vai'. vestitum
Hook. f. : Handhook. p. 997). |R. : J. F. A. : J. B. A. : T. P. ;
L. C. ; A. W.]
Common on the forest-floor.

Laixg. — V( f/(tntinii of Bf/nl,-s Pc/iii/.tufa . 377

Polystichim Richard i J. Sm. {= Aspidiuni Richardi Hook. f. : Handbook,
p. 999). [J. B. A. ; T. P. ; L C. : A. W.]
Akaroa : Eaoul. Abundant in open tussock pasture. This includes
doubtless the varietal form P. ocidatum Hook. f.

Polystichum hispidum J. Sm. [J. B. A. ; T. P. ; L. C]
Otahuna : A. Wall !

*°{^) Polystichim capense J. Sm.

Akaroa : Kaoul. Probably an erroneous identification.

Dnjopfeiis qlahella C. Chr. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Allandale: A. Wall ! Balgueri Valley : Pv. M. L. Ohimtahi : Potts,

Ihyopteris punctata C. Chr. [J. B. A. ; T. P. ; L. C. ; A. W.]
Common.

Dryopieris pennigera C. Chr. (= Polijpodhim pennigerum Forst. i. : Manual,
].. 1009). [J. B. A. ; T. P. ; L. C. ; A. W.]
Common by the sides of streams.

J. F. A.. J. B. A., and T. P. give also {^)Bryoptcris (Nepthrodium)
decomposita.

*°{''-)Nep}irodium velutinum Raoul. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; T. P.]
Akaroa.

*Polypodium australeMeft. [J. B. A. ; T. P.]
Common on trees and rocks.

Polypodiuw australe Mett. var. pnmihtm Cheesm.

Mount Herbert Peak, and doubtless elsewhere ; near Cass Peak :
R. M. L.

*{^)Polypodium CunningJiamii Hook. [J. B. A.]

Akaroa : Raoul. A rather doubtful inhabitant of the peninsula.

*Polypodium pustulatmn Forst. f. [J. B. A.]

Akaroa : Raoul. I was somewhat surprised to find in Caton's Bay
(Lake Forsyth), just above the house, on the forest-floor, undoubted
specimens of this species, as I had considered it either extinct on the
peninsula or wrongly identified.

Polypodiirm grawmitidis R. Br. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; T. P. ; A. W.]

Not uncommon on rocks exposed to the south-west.

Polypodium diversifoUuni Willd. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; T. P. ; L. C. ;
A. W.]
Everywhere abundant on rock and forest-tree.

J. B. A. gives also {^)Arthropteris [Polypodium) tcnella.

Cyclophoms serpens C. Chr. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. : A. W.]
Cliffs, rocks, and trees ; couunon.

Nothoclaena distans R. Br. [J. B. A. ; T. P. ; L. C. ; A. W.]

Lvttelton Hills, Quail Island, and Lvttelton Harbour generallv :
A. Wall !

An undescribed Cheilanthes or Nothoclaena is common about Diamond
Harbour, where it has been found by A. Wall. Cheeseman considers it
to be probably a Nothoclaena.

Gymnogramme rvtaefolia Hook. & Grev. \}j. C. ; A. W^.]

Dry rocks, Dover Castle, and north side of Mount Pleasant ; also
Sumner Valley ; Wakeroa Head ; Pigeon Bay.

378 Transactions.

Gymnogramme leptophylla Desv. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; T. P. ; L. C. ; A. W.]
In open tussock land ; not common. Heathcote Valley : E. Holds-
worth ! Lyttelton.

*Gleichema Cunninyhamii Heward. [J. B. A. ; T. P.]

Port Levy, about 2,000 ft., on Pigeon Bay side of valley, but now
extinct in this locality. Recorded by William Martin behind Le Bon's
Bay {Lyttelton Times, "l7th July, 1918).

Potts records also {-)Gleichenia dicarpa, and J. B. A. {'-)G. circinata.
It is unlikely that either occurs.

Leptopteris hi/menophi/UouIes Presl. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; T. P. ; L. C. ; A. W.]
In the darker forests, Cooper's Knobs, Kaituna, Port Levy, &c.

J. B. A. gives also {-)Todea superba and {-)Schizaea dichotoma ; both
are vinlikely species.

Ophioglossum coriaceum A. (Amn. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Lyttelton Hills, near Bridle-path ; hills behind Wainui ; ridge be-
tween Le Bon's and Waikerikikeri ; and elsewhere.

Botrychium. axstraJe R. Br. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; T. P. ; L. C]

Mount Herbert ; Lyttelton Hills, &c. ; but not often found now.

{~)Phylloglossum Drummondii is reported by J. B. A., but probably
in error.

Lycopodium varium R. Br.

Lyttelton Hills (perhaps now extinct) ; Governor's Bay, Caton's
Bay, Waikerikikeri, and in several other localities, but not now common.

Lycopodium fastigiatum R. Br. [R.]

Common on the mountain-tops in the centre of the peninsula ; also
on peak between Cass Peak and Cooper's Knobs.

'^'Lycopodium volubile Forst. f. [J. B. A.]

Akaroa : Raoul. Wainui liilltops, above Le Bon's Bay ; Summit
Road, near Hilltop Hotel : R. M. L. Mount Herbert : A. W.

J. B. A. gives also {^)L. Selago and i'^)L. Billardieri.

Lycopodium. scariosum Forst. f.

Only noted in the patch of forest beyond Kennedy's Bush.

*Tmesipteris tannensis Bernli. [J. B. A.]

Akaroa : Raoul. Okute Valley, Little River : R. ^I. L.

Class CONIFERAE.
Family Taxaceae.

*Libocedrus Bidwillii Hook. f. [J. B. A.]

Akaroa to Mount Herbert, above 1,500 ft., and chiefly on the southern
sides.

{~)L. Doiiiana, recorded by J. B. A., does not occur.

Podocarpus totara D. Don. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

At one time everywhere abundant ; now getting uncommon.

*Podocarpiis ferriigineiis D. Don. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

At one time there were a few trees on the peninsula. The only
ones I have seen recently are in a small group in Port Levy, on the
slopes of Mount Herbert, at about 1,200 ft. Mr. E. Hay has informed
me that there is one specimen in his reserve at Pigeon Bay.

Laikg. — Vegetation of B<(iih-!< I'euivi^ula . 379

*FodoGarpas Hallii T. Kirk.

Usually towards the tops of the hills, wliere it is often rather stunted.
Generally known on the peninsula as " niountain-totara." The timber
is considered somewhat inferior to that of P. totara. Apparently not
hitherto recorded.

Podocarpus spicafus R. Br. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

With P. totam this was at one time the chief timber-tree of the
forests, now largely destroyed. Above 2,500 ft. it becomes dwarfed and
flattened to the rocks.

Podocarpus dacrydioides A. Rich. [J. B. X.^

Much less common than the preceding, and generally on tlie flats,
though scattered trees were found in most valleys. " The flat was
covered [i.e., in Le Bon's Bay] with white and black pines as thick as
they could stand ; and the sides of the valley grew immense totaras
and other timber." (H. C. Jacobson, Tales oj Banks Peninsula, 1893.)

*(^)Dacrydium cupressinum Soland. [J. B. A.]

I introduce this with hesitation, as I have not seen it on the
peninsula, and believe it to be now extinct. However, settlers have
assured me that it once grew in Little River, near Okain's, and else-
where in small quantity.

Mr. W. H. Montgomery, of Little River, writes thus: " Rimus used to
be common on my land near the Hilltop '" ; and I have heard from other
sources that some 40,000 ft. of this timber was taken from a stand on
Harman's Track (Puaha). J. B. A. (Trans., vol. 12, p. 328) states the
rimu is " chiefly found on the higher ridges, and is here a far inferior
tree in beauty compared to the West Coast variety of the same species.'"
This does not agree with my information ; and I certainly would expect
to find it rather in the moister valleys amongst the denser bush than on
the higher ridges."

Class MONOCOTYLEDONEAE.

Family Typhaceae.

Typha angustiJoUa Linn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

In swampy places common, thougli becoming less abundant as
drainage proceeds.

Family Naiadaceae.

Triglochin striatum Ruiz. & Pav. [J. B. A.]

Kaituna ; Heathcote Estuarv : R. i\L L. Children's Bay, Akaroa :
A. W.

*Ruppia maritima Linn. [J. B. A.]
Kaituna, Lake Ellesmere.

Zosfera nana Roth (?). [J. B. A.]

I have not examined this species carefully. Lyttelton Harbour and
elsewhere.

*° Potanwgeton pectinafus Linn.
Lake Forsyth : T. Kirk.

*°Potaniogeton ochreatus Raoul. [R. ; J. B. A.]
Banks Peninsula is the habitat of the type.

J. B. A. records two other species — (^)P. nutans and (")P. compressus — ■
but I have not seen them. P. Cheesemanii is to be expected, but has not
vet been recorded.

380 Transactions.

Family Gramineae.

°{^)Zoysia pungens Willd. [J. B. A.]

Recorded by Cheeseman {Manual, p. 844). I have seen it growing
at Gore Bay, and have also seen specimens from New Brighton, and
consider that it probably still occurs on the peninsula.

Microlaena avenacea Hook. f. [R. ; J. B. A. : L. C]

Abundant on the forest-floor. (Akaroa is the habitat of the type.)

Microlaena polynoda Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Rare. Redcliffs, Caton's Bav, in scrub ; bush bevond Kennedy's :
A. W.

Hierochloe redolens R. Br. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]
Common ; usually above 800 ft.

'^Stifa arundinacea Benth. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Pigeon Bay; Long Bay (near Peraki) : R. M. L. Akaroa: Lyall ;
Kirk.

Slipa setacea R. Br.

Sumner ; Heathcote Valley ; Cashmere Hills. Probably a recent
introduction .

Echinopogon ovatus Beauv. [J. B. A.]

Apparently not common. Lyttelton Hills : A. W. Caton's Bay ;
Island Bay : R. M. L.

J. B. A. records {^)Agroslis canina and {^)A. quadriseta. These
should certainly be looked for.

*Deyeuxia filiformis Petrie. [J. B. A.]

Kaituna ; Mount Fitzgerald ; Stony Bay.

*°Deyeuxia filifonnis Petrie var. pilosa Cheesem.
Banks Peninsula : T. Kirk.

Dichelachne crinita Hook. f. [J. B. A. : L. C]
Common on rock-faces and drier hillsides

Deschampsia caespitosa Beauv. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Akaroa : Raoul. Tops of ridges, Lyttelton Hills : R. M. L. And
probably elsewhere.

°Trisetiim antarcticum Trin. [J. B. A.]
Lyttelton Hills : Cockayne.

*Danthonia Cunninghamii Hook. f.

Mount Herbert and Mount Sinclair, 2,5(X) ft. Apparently not
hitherto recorded.

Danfhonia Raoulii Steud.

Akaroa (the habitat of the type) ; Mount Sinclair, above 1,000 ft. ;
Cooper's Knobs.

I treated this previously as D. flavescens {Trans., vol. 46. p. 58),
but as the ])lant differs somewhat from the form as found elsewhere,
and as it is undoubtedly the D. rigida of Raoul, it is the type of
D. Raoidii and may be called var. rigida.

Danthonia semi annularis R. Br. [R. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common in the tussock meadows, and probably increasing in quantity.

Danthonia pilosa R. Br. [L. C]

Abundant, and increasing (see introduction, p. 363).

Laing. — Vcyetation nf Banks Ptninsula. 381

Arundo conspicua Forst. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common in gullies with flax.

Poa caespitosa, Forst. f. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

The chief tussock of the hillside, but slowly disappearing owing to
fires and cultivation.

Foa Colensoi Hook. f. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Commoner towards the hilltops, and apparently a disappearing
species.

Poa imbecilla Forst. f. var. Matthewsii Hack. [J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common in damper and shadier ground near the hilltops.

J. B. A. includes also {'~)P. breviglumis, {'^)P. foliosa, {-)P. anceps,
(-)P. Lindsayi, and (^)P. scoparia. Two of these are plants of the sub-
antarctic islands.

Atropis stricta Hack. var. suborbicularis Hack.

Salt meadows, Teddington (det. Petrie). Apparently not hitherto
recorded.

Festuca novae-zealandiaeCock-Ayne. [J. B. A. ; L C]
Not uncommon in the tussock pastures.

°Festuca multinodis Petrie.

Lyttelton Hills : Cockayne.

*Fes(uca littomlis Labill. f J. B. A.]
Peninsula, near shore.

Agropyron scabrum Beav. var. [L. C]

Lyttelton Hills ; not common. Island Bay : R. M. L. A migrant
tussock.

*Af/ropyfon midtlflorum. T. Kirk.

Akaroa : T. Kirk. (Specimen in the Canterbury Museum.)

*°A.sperella gracilis T. Kirk. [J. B. A.]
Akaroa : Raoul.

Family Cyperaceae.

The following species, recorded only by J. B. A., should, I think,
be struck oft' the list: {^)Cyperus teneUns, {'■^)Schoenus tenax, (^)S. pauci-
jiorus, {^)S. axillaris.

*Manscus ustulatus C. B. Clarke. [J. B. A.]

Peraki : L. C. Near Long Lookout, Island Bay : R. M. L.

Eleocharis acuta R. Br. [J. B. A.]

In damp places, Cashmere Hills : R. M. L. ; A. W.

(^)Eleocharis Cunninghamii Boeck. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Lyttelton Hills : L. C. (Possibly in error for the preceding .species,
though A. W. has found it in Hagley Park.)

('^)E. sphacelata is also recorded by J. B. A.

Scirpus inundatus Poir. [J. B. A.]

Damp spots on Lyttelton Hills : A. W. Doubtless also on Banks
Peninsula.

*'^ Scirpus antarcticus Linn.

Mount Herbert : A. Wall.

382 Transact IU71S.

*Scirpus snlcatus Thouars var. distigmatosa C. B. Clarke.
Wainui, in watercourses.

Scityus nodosus Rottb. [J. B. A.]

Lyttelton Hills ; Pigeon Bay ; Akaroa. Common in dry water-
courses and near the seashore.

Scirpus cernuus Vahl.

Salt meadows, Teddington, and elsewhere.

Scirpus frondosus Banks & Sol. [J. F. A.]

Sandhills, Sumner and Taylor's Mistake.

Scirpus americanus Pers.

Ohinitahi ; Lake EUesmere ; &c.

Scirpus lacustris Linn.

Heathcote : B. D. Cross.

Scirpus maritimus Linn.

Akaroa : T. Kirk. Lake EUesmere ; Ohinitahi.

J. B. A. gives also {^)Fimhristylis dicholoma, a very im})roljable
inhabitant, being a plant of the warmer portions of the North Lsland :
but {^)Cladium teretifoUum may possibly occur. Four species of Gahnia
also appear on his list. I have seen none, and if any occur they are
by no means common. J. F. A. records {^)Lepidosperma tetragona
(= Chidium Vanthiera) : this may possibly occur, but I have not seen
it nearer than Mount Grey.

Cladium glomeratum R. Br. [J. B. A. j
Cashmere Valley : A. W. !

*Uncinia rubra Boott.

Abundant, 2.000 ft. and upwards, from Mount Sinclair to Castle
Rock.

Uncinia uncinata (Linn, f.) T. Kirk. [J. B. A.]
Common in the forests and elsewhere.

Uticinia leptostachya Raoul. [J. B. A.]

Common in the forest, Akaroa (habitat of type).

Uncinia riparia R. Br. var. Banksii C. B. Clarke.

Mount Pleasant (det. Petrie). Akaroa : A. W.

J. B. A. gives also {^)U. ruqiestris. which, being one of Raoul's
species, is doubtless an inhabitant of the peninsula ; but after a close
search I am unable to find it. I think it unlikely that there are other
forms on the peninsula than those listed above. If this be so, then
TJ . rupestris of Raoul may be included in one of the forms above, possibly
U. riparia var. Banlvsii ; though it is to be admitted that none of my
specimens coincide exactly with Raoul's illustration.

(^nrPT n'p'prpisa R. Br.

Near Lyttelton lighthouse : A. Wall ! A new recoid.

Carex virgata Sol. [J. B. A.]

Cashmere Valley, below Marley's Road : R. M. L. Stony Bay :
J. Andersen !

Carex secta Boott. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Xot uncommon in swampy yjlaces and by the sides of streams —
e.g.. Teddington ; Charteris Bay ; Taylor's Mistake (on the shore) ;
Wainui.

Laing. — Vegetafioii of Banks Peninsula. 383

Carex breviculmis R. Br. [J. B. A.]

In drier ground, often near the hilltops.

Carex ternaria Forst. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common in dam])er places — indeed, the most abundant species of
Carex on the peninsula.

*{^)Carex Colensoi Boott.

Specimens from Castle Rock were identified by Petrie as probably
belonging to this species.

*°Garex Raoulii Boott. [J. B. A.]
Akaroa : Raoul.

*Carex Wakatipu Petrie. (Con. Cheeseman.)
Castle Rock, 2,500 ft.

Carex litcida Boott. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common in damper spots on the Cashmere Hills, in the neighbour-
hood of Governor's I3ay and Teddington, and possib y elsewhere.

Carex liforosa Bailey.

Heathcote : B. D. Cross.

Carex dissita Sol. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

In pastures and forest ; not very common.

*°Carex trifida Cav. [J. B. A.]
Akaroa : Raoul.

*Carex pumila Thuub. [J. B. A.]

Wainui : R. M. L. Akaroa : Raoul.

*Carex jiava Linn, var. cataractae B. Br. [J. B. A.]
Top of Castle Rock.

Carex pseudo-cyperus Linn.

Watercourse, Port Levy.

Carex Forsteri Wahl.

By the side of bush-streams, Kaituna, Port Levy ; Summit Track
beyond Kennedy's Bush, Governor's Bay. Some of the specimens have
rather the character of C. semi-Forsteri.

I have paid too little attention to the genus Carex to be able to give
a coniplete list, consequently additional species are to be expected here.

J. B. A. gives in addition (^)C'. pyrenaica, (^)C. teretiuscula, (^)C. steUn-
lala, {^)C. testac:ea, {^)C. inversa, (^)C. vacillans. Some of these probably
occur.

Family Palmeae.

*Rhopalostylis sapida Wendl. & Drude. [J. B. A.]

Once not uncommon, now becoming rare — Holmes Bay (pro-
bably now extinct) ; Laverick's ; Okain's ; Le Bons ; Waikerikikeri ;
Damon's ; Palm Gully, Akaroa. (The southernmost limit on this coast.)

Family Lemnaceae.

Lemna minor Linn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]
In pools.

Family Restiaceae.

Leptocarpus simplex A. Rich. [J. B. A.]

Heathcote, in salt marshes : B. D. Cross. Teddington : R. M. L.

384: Transactions.

Family Juncaceae.
J uncus pallidiis R. Br. (?).

(The identification is not quite certain, as my specimens are some-
what immature.)

Port Lew : R. M. L. Probably also on Lvttelton Hills, near Dry
Bush : A. W".

Juncus pauciflonis B. Br. [J. B. A. ; L. C]
Abundant in the tussock pastures.

Juncus vaginatus R. Br. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]
Akaroa : T. Kirk. Lyttelton Hills.

Juncus poJijanOiemus Buchen. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common in damper pastures.

J uncus maritinius Lam. var. australiensis Buchen. [J. B. iV.]

Common in salt marshes. (According to B. D. Cross, extends as far
south as Timaru.)

Juncus hufonius Linn. [J. B. A.]
Abundant.

*Juncus planifolius R. Br.

Akaroa : Raoul. Moimt Herbert, near top : A. Wall. Kaituna, in
the wayside ditches : R. M. L.

Juncus caespiticius E. Mey. var. hracteatus Buchen.

Cashmere Valley : A. Wall.
^'Juncus novae-zealandiae Hook. f.

French Peak, and in a slender state on the top of Castle Rock.

J. B. A. gives also (~)'/. scheuchzerioides and (')>/. holoschoenus,
neither of which is likely to occur.
Luzula campestris DC. vars. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Family Liliaceae.

Rhipogoitum scandens Forst. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common in the forest in many places.

Cordijline australis Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common on open hillsides.

*Cordijline indivisa Steud. [J. B. A.j

Apparently the southernmost limit on this coast. Above 1,800 ft.
Purau Line, Akaroa Summit Road : not common.

(^)C. Veitchii Hort., given as an additional species by J. B. A.,
is mereh' a synonym of C. australis.
Asfelia nervosa Banks & Sol. [J. B. A. ; L. C]
Abundant, chiefly in forest.

(^)A. Solandri and {~)A. linearis are recorded by J. B. A., but
have not been observed by any one else.

Phormium tenax Forst. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common in gullies and at moister spots.

*Phormium Cookianum Le Jolis. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

On cliffs, and often in the open above the bush line. Possibly
occurs on the Lyttelton Hills, though not definitely recorded from there.

{^)Bulbinella Hookeri is recorded by J. F. A. and J. B. A., and
perhaps occurs.

Laixg. — Vegefnfiou of Banhs Peninsuhi . 385

Arfhropodium candidum Raoul. [R. ; J. F. A. : J. B. A. ; L. C]

Not infrequent in shaded gullies and in bush. Aylmer's Valley,
track to lighthouse : A. Wall. Cashmere Hills ; Castle Rock ; &c. :
R. M. L. Akaroa (habitat of type).

J. B. A. records also {^)Dianella intermedia. I do not think it occurs.

*°Iphigenia novae-zelandiae Baker. [J. F. A.]

Banks Peninsula : Cockayne, in Cheesenian's Manual.

Family Amaryllidaceae.

Hi/poxis J) us ill a Hook. f. |L. C.]

Victoria Park, Cashmere Hills, and elsewhere. Difficult to observe
unless in flower. Flowers April to ,June, and again in early spring.

Family Iridaceae.

Lihertia grand if ora Sweet (?)• [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Abundant. The j)lant is larger in every way than the common
forms of L. ixioides that 1 am acquainted with elsewhere, and may
be true L. grandiflora ; but though the capsules are often \ in. in
length I have measured none exceeding that dimension ; the leaves,
however, are often over \ in. wide. There is, at any rate, only one
species to be found here. The bracts are always long narrow-linear
or linear-lanceolate and acuminate. Hooker [Handhook, p. 274) evi-
dently regards this form as L. grandiflora, so I have r tained the name.

J. F. A., J. B. A., and L, C. give L. ixioides. J. B A. includes
also {'-)L. restioides Klatt and {'~)L. micranfha A. Cunn.

Family Orchidaceae.

Earina miicronafa Lindl. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. : L. C]

I am not certain that I have seen this species. It is certainly less
common than the followine.

'O'

Earina suaveolens Lindl. [J. B. A.]
Not uncommon in rocky clefts.

J. B. A records also {^)Dendrobiuni Cunninghamii, but I have not
seen it.

*Spiranthes auslralis Lindl.

Banks Peninsula : J. B. A. !

Several specimens labelled as from Banks Peninsula are in the
Canterbury Museum. In the Lyttelton Times of the 6th April, 1918,
in the column " From Nature's Book "f appears the following :
"Mr. J. B. Ai-mstrong . . . reports that Spiranthes australis was
very common on the Lake Ellesmere flats before they were drained.
Both the red and white variety may be found there still "

Thehjmitra longijolia Forst. [J. F. A. ; L. C]

Castle Rock ; Sugarloaf, &c. ; but becoming less common.

J. B. A. includes {'^)T. uniflora, which I have not seen.

t Edited by J. Drummond.
13— Trans.

386 Transactions.

Microtis unijolia Reichenb. [J. B. A. ; L. C]
Not uncommon.

Prasophi/llum Colensoi Hook. f. [J. F. A.]

Castle Rock, above 2,500 ft. ; Lyttelton (?) : R. M. L.

Pterostiflis BanJcsii R. Br.

Not uncommon in the forest and heath.

*Pterostylis australis Hook. f.

Waikerikikeri ; Checkley's Bush, Akaroa ; and probably elsewhere.

Pterostylis graminea Hook. f.

Waikerikikeri ; Castle Rock ; Lyttelton.

{''■) Pterostylis foliata Hook. f. {{).

Heathcote Valley. One specimen only seen, collected by Miss E.
Holdsworth, and thus identified by Cheeseman : " I believe, however,
that it is P. joliata, of which it has the sheathing bracts and short
lateral sepals."

(~)Cyrtostylis ohlonga is recorded l)y J. B. A.

*Caladenia minor Hook. f. [J. B. A.]
Akaroa : Miss M. Fyfe !

Corysanthes triloba Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Not uncommon in damp shady spots.

*Corysanthes macrantha Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]
Castle Rock.

Gastrodia C unninghamii Hook. f. [J. B. A.]

Okute Valley, and probably elsewhere. It has been reported to me
from Akaroa, and near Tai Tapu, but I have not seen specimens.

Other orchids reported by J. B. A. are {'^)Dendrobium pygmaeuw, {^)Cory-
santhes rotundifolia, {'~)C. rivularis, {^)Lyperanthus antarcticus, i^-)Caladenia
Lyallii ; and by J. F. A., {^)Corysanthes ohlonga.

Class DICOTYLEDONEAE.
Family Piperaceae.

Macropiper excelsum Miq. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Not uncommon in the lower forest, particularly near the sea. Here
finds its southernmost limit.

Family Fagaceae.

*Nothofagi(s Solanderi Oerst.

Summit of Long Bay Ridge, Akaroa, and extending downward for
some distance to the eastward. Forms resembling N. Blairii are to be
found, but require further examination.

*Nothofagus cliffortioides Oerst.

Forms apparently belonging to this species occur intermingled with
N. Solanderi on the Long Bay Ridge. J. B. A, records it with a (?).

*Nothofagus fusca Oerst. [J. B. A.]

Ridges from Stony Bay to Damon's Bay. Some magnificent speci-
mens are found here in the forest.

Laixg. — Vegetation of BanliS Peninsula. 387

Family Urticaceae.

Paratrophis microph/Ua Cockayne. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Abundant in the forest.

Urtica incisa Poir. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

In forest.

Urtica ferox Forst. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant in forests and in their neighbourhood.

*Parietaria dehilis Forst. f. [J. B. A.]

In scrub near Caton's Bay, Little Akaloa, and elsewhere, but not
common.

Aiistralina pusilla Gaud. [J. B. A.]

Mount Pleasant ; Cooper's Knobs (perhaps extinct in this locality) ;
Port Levy, on sides of small waterfall ; Barry's Bay, in dark creek.

Family Loranthaceae.

Lomnthus micranthus Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common ; becoming a pest in Akaroa, where it attacks fruit-trees
and other deciduous trees such as Rohinia pseudacacia, and even the
willow. (See also Out in the Open. p. 135.)

Tupeia antarctica Cham. & Schl. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; T. P. ; L. C]

Lyttelton {Out in the Open, p. 138) ; Stony Bay ; Akaroa ; Caton's
Bay ; Port Levy.

Korthalsella TAndsayi Engler. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; T. P.]

On Myrsine Urvillei at Purau, on Myrtus ohcordata at Stony Bay,
and on Melicope simplex at Port Levy.

Korthalsella salicornioides Van Tiegh. [J. B. A. ; L. C. ; T. P.]

Wainui ; Caton"s Bay, on Leptospermum : R. i\L L. Lyttelton Hills :
Potts ; Cockayne. Dover Castle : A. W.

Of this species Potts {Out in the Open, p. 139) writes : " The writer
only knows one habitat, that amongst a group of rocks just above the
sea in Port Cooper. At the spot mentioned it makes use of the small-
leaved manuka {Leptospermum ericoides) as a fostering plant." Doubt-
less extinct in locality referred to.

Family Polygonaceae.

Polygonum aviculare Linn. [J. F. A.]

By roadsides, common ; probably introduced.

Rumex flexuosus Soland. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L, C]
Common.

Muehlenbeckia australis Meissn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Abundant.

Muehlenbeckia complexa Meissn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Everywhere abundant at the edge of forests and in dry stony ground.

* Muehlenbeckia axillaris. [J. B. A.]

Top of Saddle Peak. Seen nowhere else by me.

13*

388 Transactions.

Family Chenopodiaceae.

Rhagodia nutans R. Br. [L. C]

Lyttelton Hills, amongst stones ; Governor's Bay ; Pigeon Bay, by
seaside : R. M. L. Sleepy Cove, between Long Bay and Stony Bay, and
doubtless elsewhere by the sea-coast : A. Wall.

Chenopodium triandrum Forst. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Common in dry rocky ground. In specimens from the Lyttelton
Hills the perianth-segments numbered five.

Chenopodium glaucum Linn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]
Taylor's Mistake.

Chenopodium carinatum R. Br.

Above Heathcote Reservoir. Probably introduced.

Atriplcx patula Linn.

Heathcote : B. D, Cross. Ohinitahi ; Teddington.

J. F. A. and J. B. A. give also {^)Chenopodimn ambiguum, which
possibly occurs.

Salicornia australis Linn.

Abundant in salt marshes.

Suaeda maritima Dum.

The beach, Le Bon's Bay ; Redclift's : A. W.

Familv Aizoaceae.
Tefragonia expansa Murr.

Abundant on coastal banks, but occasionally ascending to 1,000 ft.
on cliffs.
Tetragonia trigyna Banks & Sol.

Less common than the preceding. Also ascending to 1,000 ft.. but
usually on the sea-coast.
Mesembryonthemum australe Sol.
Common on the sea-coast.

Family Caryophyllaceae.

*°Gi/psophila tubulosa Boiss.
Lake Forsyth : Kirk.
Stellaria parviflora Banks & Sol. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common. A much depauperated form with only 3 or 4 stamens
occurs at the altitude of about 1 ,000 ft. on the southern face of Mount
Pleasant.

Colobanthns Muelleri, Kirk.

Common in similar places to the following species.

Colobanthus Billardieri Fenzl. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Not uncommon in rocky places near the hilltops.

(^)O. quitensis Bartl. is also recorded by J. B. A., and may occur.

Spergidaria media Presl.

Not uncommon on rocky coasts. Probably = S. marina var. rubra

of J. B. A.

Scleranthus biflorus Hook. f. [J. B. A. ; L. C]
In drv and rocky ground ; common.

Laing. — Vegetation of Banks Peninsula. 389

Family Ranunculaceae.

Clematis indivisa Willd. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

At one time common in the forest ; now much less so.

C. hexasepala Forst. is recorded by J. B. A. and T. K., but does not
occui. A specimen labelled C. hexasepala and collected by T. Kirk at
Governor's Bay is in the collection at the Canterbury Museum, but,
as pointed out on the sheet by L. C, is merely a well-grown plant of
C. foetida.

^Clematis Colensoi Hook. f. [J. B. A.]

Price's Bush, near Birdling's Flat : S. Page ! W. Martin.

Clematis foetida Raoul. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Everywhere common in the forest, and in Birdling's Bush forming
stems which rival those of C indivisa in diameter. (Akaroa is the type-
locality.)

(^)C'. parviflora is also recorded by J. B. A., but I have not seen it,
and doubt its occurrence.

Clematis afoliata Buch. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Not uncommon on the sea-coast, and occasionally on the drier cliffs
up to 1,500 ft. At Sumner it is becoming more abundant.

C. marata is not uncommon on the sand-dunes at New Brighton, but
is probably not to be found on the peninsula.

Rammcuhis hirtus Banks & Sol. [J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common in the tussock country.

Ranunculus lappaceus Smith var. multiscapus Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A ;
L. C]
Common in open country.

Ranunculus rivularis Banks & Sol. var. suhfluitaus Benth.
Pond, Cashmere Hills.

J. F. A. and J. B. A. record also {^)R. pinguis, an Auckland Island
plant, and J. F. A. gives {-)R. macropus.

Family Magnoliaceae.
Drimys colorata Raoul. [R. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant, particularly on the upper edges of the forests. (Akaroa
is the type-locality.)

J. F. A. gives {-)D. axillaris, no doubt in place of the above species,
and T. Kirk [Students' Flora) states the D. axillaris goes as far south as
Banks Peninsula, but he is, I think, in error.

Family Monimiaceae.
Hexhjcanja arhorea Forst.

Common in the forest. Its southernmost limit on this coast, though
it extends as far as Preservation Inlet on tlie west coast.

Family Cruciperae.
Cardamine heterophylla Schulz. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Usually weak and decumbent ; but a stout, erect variet)^ ([)erha]js
var. inacrantha) occurs on the cliffs on the northern side of Mount
Pleasant, above the Summit Track (not seen in flower). The weak and
decumbent form may be var. leiocarpa.

*Lepidium oleraceum Forst. f. var. acutidentatum Kirk.
Coastal cliffs, Waikerikikeri.

390 Transactions.

Family Droseraceae.

J. F. A. and J. B. A. record, but probably in error, {-)Brosem
spathulata and {-)D. hinata.

Family Crassulaceae.
Crassula Sieberiana Schultz. [L. C]

An annnal, abundant in dry, hard ground and on rocks in spring
and summer.

*Crassula moschata DC. [J. B. A.]

Crown Island Run, on the coast.

J. B. A. records also {^)Tillaea Sinclairii.

Family Saxifragaceae.

Carpodetus serratus Forst. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
A common forest tree.

J. B. A. lists also {-)Quintinia serrata, a ([uite unlikeh- species.

Family Pittosporaceae.

Pittosjwrum tenuifolium Banks & Sol. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant in forest, and here erroneously called " matipo." The
relative pro})ortions of the leaves vary considerably in breadth and length
in different specimens.

J. B. A. and J. F. A. record also P. Colensoi, but a specimen so
named by J. B. A. in tlie Canterbury Museum is a common form of
P. tenuifolium.

Pittosporum cugenioidcs A. Cunn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common in the forest.

*°{^)PiUospon<m ohcordatum Raoul. [R. ; J. B. A.]

Akaroa : R. (type-locality). Does not appear to have been found
since the days of Raoul at Akaroa, though it appears in J. B. A.'s list
(see Cheeseman, Trans., vol. 39, p. 436).

Family Rosaceae.

Rubus australis Forst. f. var. glaber Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Abundant in the forest.

Biibics cissoides A. Cunn. [J. B. A.]
In the forests ; abundant.

Var. pauperatus Kirk, though sometimes found in the forest, is more
often found in the open, chiefly on the sites of old forests. [J. B. A. ;
L. C]

Riibus schmidelioides A. Cunn. [J. B. A.] var. co'oratus Kirk [L. C]

Common on the margin of the forests, and in rocky ground above
the forests.

Rubus subpauperatus Cockayne. [L. C]

Common near the outskirts of the forest.

Potentilla anserina Linn. var. anserinoides Raoul. [R. ; J. F. A. : J. B. A.
L. C]
In swampy ground occasionally. (Akaroa is the type-locality.)

Lainq. — Vegetation of Banks Peninsula. 391

o

Geum urhanum Linn. var. sfrictum Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C] ,

Tussock pastures : Cockayne.

Acasna novae-zelandiae Kirk var. viridissima Bitter. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

This is the most abundant form of Acaena on the peninsula, and is
everywhere common up to 1,600 ft., particularly in dry open ground.
In the forest it is usually replaced by the following, which, however,
is by no means so co)nmon.

Acaetm Sanguisorbae Vahl. var.

This variety is thus described from my specimens by L. Cockayiie
in a letter to me : " Plainly to be distinguished by the dark dull green
and but slightly hair}^ upper surface of the leaf, the silvery under-
surface with closely appressed hairs, the sepals green edged with purple
within and still more hairy and purple without, the frequently trifid
stipules, and the rather short stout spines, which vary from pale to rather
dark purple." This variety, comparatively rare on the Lyttelton Hills,
occurs frequently on the peninsula above 1,500 ft., and at all levels
in the forest.

Acaena Sanguisorbae Vahl. var. pilosa- Kirk.

This form as described by Kirk (occurs on the southern slopes of
Castle Rock and Mount Herbert above the height of 2,000 ft., probably
also at Cooper's Knobs. It is at once distinguished from the preceding
by its glaucous bluish coloration, with brown serrations. The under-
surface of the leaf, the upper margin, the petiole, peduncles, and stem
are all markedly pilose. (I am indebted to Dr. Cockayne, who is making
a special study of the New Zealand species of the genus, for this
identification).

A fourth form of Acaena {Acaena Sanguisorbae Vahl. var. viridior
Cockayne) occurs in a small piece of bush in the Wainui Valley.

J. B. A. gives also (^)^4. adscendens, but I do not think it occurs.

Family Leguminosae.

*{^ )Carniichaelia nana Col. (i). [J. B. A.]

I have seen specimens belonging, I think, to this species near the
top of Mount Herbert, on the northern side. Neither flowers nor fruit
were present, and I was unable to identify it with certainty. C. nana
is common on the old river-bed of the Waimakariri, seven miles from
Christchurch.

Carmichaelia subulala Kirk. [L. C]

Abundant in open country from the seashore to upwards of 1,500 ft.
This is the only large species on the peninsula.

J. B. A. records (-)C australis, which does not come south of Pelorus
Sound, ('^)G. flagellijormis (probably in error for the above), {-)C. pilosa
Col. (?), and with J. F. A., in addition, {'^)C. grandiflora.

Sojjhora micropkylla J. Miill. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common in the forest, and sometimes on the open hillside.

So'phora prostrata J. Miill. [L. C]

Common in rocky ground, and here a very distinct species.

392 Transactions.

*Sophora ietraptera J. Miill var.

A third and very distinct form of this genus occurs between Rau])0
and Stony Bay, and apparently has no juvenile stage. On submitting
a specimen to T. F. Cheeseman he commented on it as follows : " This
seems to b> nearer to S. grandi flora than to >S'. micvophylla, but does
not match the East Cape plant, which must be taken as the type."
The leaves are about 10 cm. long with 15-20 pairs of linear-oblong
leaflets, the standard about f the length of the wings, and not reflexed.

J. B. A. records (")*S. grandiflora.

Family Geraniaceae.

Geranium microphyllum, Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common in grasslands.

Geranium sessiliflorum Cav. var. glabrani Knuth. [J. B. A.]

Peak between Cass Peak and Cooper's Knobs ; Barrv's Bav : Castle
Rock (2,500 ft.).

Geranium dissectum Linn. var. australe Benth. [J. F. A. : J. B. A.]
Not common, and usually in cultivated places.

Pelargoniimi iiiodorum Willd. [J. F. A. ; L. C]

Cashmere Hills and elsewhere, chieflv in cultivated uround.

Family Oxalidaceae.

Oxalis cornicidata Linn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Everywhere abundant in open country.

Oxalis magellanica Forst.

Old Purau Road, Mount Fitzgerald (2,500 ft.).

Family Linaceae.

Linum monogynum Forst. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Evervwhere comnion on the coastal cliffs, and sometimes also found
on rocky crests and summits.

The introduced L. marginale is sporadic and adventive. It was at
one time common near the foot of Dyer's Pass Road.

Family Rutaceae.

Melicope simplex A. Cunn. | J. B. A. ; L. C]
Everywhere abundant in the forest.

Family Euphorbiaceae.

Euphorbia glauca Forst. f. | J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

The beach, Le Bon's : R. M. L. The beach, Wainui : A. W. ; R. M. L.

Family Callitrichaceae.

Ckdlitriche verna Linn.

Wainui ; common in streams. Apparently a new record.

LA^^•G. — Vegetation of Banks Feninsula. 393

Family Coriariaceae.

Coriaria sarmenlosa Forst. f. | J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common in the tree form in the forest, and ui the dwarf form in the
open. The small form is considered to be more deadly to stock.

Family Corynocarpaceae.

Corynocarpus laevigata Forst. [J. B. A.]

At one time a few scattered s])ecimens ])robably existed along the
coast from Dampier's Bay, Lyttelton, to Long Lookout Point, It has
been suggested by J. B. A. that it is an escape from cultivation ; but
there is nothing in its distribution at Long Lookout Point, the only
place where it now occurs, to suggest this. It there extends to a dis-
tance of a mile and a half inland from the beach, and has l)een com-
paratively abundant over this area. It is said that a grove existing
at Macintosh Bay was felled by the owner in order to discourage the
Maoris from visiting the place. One plant in Aylmer's Valley, Akaroa,
found by Miss Fyfe ! (See introduction for further account of its
distribution.)

Family Icacinaceae.

Pennantia corymbosa Forst. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common in the forest.

Family Sapixdaceae.

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. f J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common in the coastal forests -e.^., Gollan's Bay; Rapaki ; Lake
Forsyth ; Akaroa.

Alectryon excel sum Gaertn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Gollan"s Bay ; Port Levy ; Birdling's Bush, where it forms a con-
siderable proportion of the forest ; and elsewhere. Its southernmost
limit on this coast.

Family Ehamnaceae.

Discaria foumatou Raoul. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant in open country. (Akai'oa is the type-locality.)

Falnily Elaeocarpaceae.

Aristotelia racemosa Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant in the forest.

* Aristotelia f rut icosa Hook. f. [J. B. A.]

Forest on southern side of Mount Herbert (2,500 ft.) ; only several
specimens seen.

*Elaeocarpus Hookeriaiias Raoul. [R. ; J. B. A.]

Caton's Bay ; Tikao Bay : S. Page. Aylmer's Valley ; Waikeri-
kikeri ; Port Levy. In most places only a solitary specimen or two.
(Akaroa is the type-locality.)

*(^)Elaeocarpus dentatus Vahl. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

I have not certainly seen this on Banks Peninsula. It occurs in
Deans's Bush, near Christchurch ; and a specimen of Elaeocarpus at
Pigeon Bay ])robably belongs to this species, but 1 have nf)t seen it
in flower.

394 Transactions.

Family Malvaceae.

Plagianthus divaricatus Forst. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Common in salt-water marshes, as at Teddington ; or on stony
beaches — e.g., Port Levy.

{^) Plagianthus cymosus T. Kirk.

A specimen apparently belonging to this species was found on Moimt
Pleasant, behind Lyttelton, by Cockayne and Petrie ; but in spite
of numerous searches I have been unable to rediscover the plant.
Cockayne now thinks it may have been a flowering plant of the
juvenile form of P. hetulinus.

Plagianthus hetulinus A. Cunn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant in the forest.

Hoheria angustifolia Raoul. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common in the opener forest and by roadsides. (Akaroa is the type-
locality.)

Family Guttiferae.

Hypericum gramineum Forst. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Tussock-grasslands.

Hypericum japonicum Thiinb. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Tussock-grasslands.

r)-^

Family Violaceae.

Viola filicaulis Hook, f . [J. B. A.]
Hilltops chiefly.

Viola Cunninghamii Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Tussock-grassland and swamps.

Melicytus ramiflorus Forst. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Everywhere common. Known on the peninsula as "' cow-leaf " or
" whity-wood." The North Island Maori name, ' mahoe," is quite
unknown here, as is also the Otago " ini-ini.'"

(^) Melicytus lanceolatus is recorded only by J. B. A. I have not
seen it nearer than Peel Forest.

°{'^) Melicytus micranthus Hook. f. var. microphyllus Cheesm. [J. B. A.;
L. C]

Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook. f. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant in rocky places, particularly near the hilltops. A rigid
shrub with spinous divaricating interlacing branches, forming a mat
closelv appressed to stones and chff- faces. The berries are foimd on
the underside of the mat, and remain white when not exposed to light,
but thereafter become dark blue — almost black. It has been regarded
as a coastal plant, but is not so here.

The species is extremely plastic, probably as much so as Discaria
foumatou has been shown to be by Cockapie. In caves and moist
forests it loses its thorny and divaricating character, forms long pliant
branchlets pubescent towards the tips, and becomes clothed with some-
what larger leaves. In this form it is perhaps not different from
H. dentata.

Laixg. — Vegetation of Banks Peninsula. 395

Family Passifloraceae.

Tetrapathaea australis Raoul. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Becoming extinct on the Lyttelton Hills. Maori Pa, Port Levy ;
Pigeon Bay ; Aylmer's Valley ; Checkley's Bush, Akaroa, common ;
Barry's Bay ; Caton's Bay. Here at its southernmost limit on this coast.

Family Thymelaeaceae.

*Drapetes Dieffeiibachii Hook.

Common above 2,000 ft. Leaves hairy at the tip but not on the
margin. In specimens from Mount Brasenose the perianth-lobes are
as long as the tube and externally villous. Dr. Berggren has identified
this with the Tasmanian D. tasmanica, which it resembles,! but in the
absence of specimens of the latter it must be left as it is.

1 have seen no pimeleas on the peninsula ; but J. B. A. lists {^)P. pro-
strata, thouoh J. F. A. oives it merely as an inhabitant of Canterburv
swamps.

Family Myrtaceae.

Leptospermum scoparium Forst. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Everywhere common in heaths.

Leptospermum ericoides A. Rich. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant, and in the Kaituna Valley growing into trees more than

2 ft. in diameter at the bole and 50 ft. high.

Metrosideros hypericifolla A. Cunn. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Not common on the Lyttelton Hills, but plentiful in the forest
elsewhere on the peninsula.

According to J. B. A., {'')M. scandens and (')M. Colensoi also occur
on the peninsula, but these records are almost certainly erroneous.

Myrtus ohcordata (Raoul) Hook. f. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common in forest and scrub. (Akaroa is the type-locality.)

*Ml/rt)(s peduHCulata Hook. f. [J. B. A.]

Kaituna Valley and elsewhere ; but not nearly so common as the
preceding. I do not think it occurs on the Lyttelton Hills.

Family Onagraceae.

*Epilohiuni Billardierianum Ser. [J. B. A.]

'' At sea-level in Sleepy Cove, between Long Bay and Stonv Bay " :
A. AVall.

Epilobium junceum Sol. var. chtereum Haussk. [J. B. A. ; L. C]
Lyttelton Hills, and elsewhere ; common.

Epilohixm junceum Sol. var. macrophyllum Haussk,

Wainui Cashmere Valley : R. M. L. Between Little River and
Port Levy Saddle, in damp places : A. Wall.

Epilobium puhens A. Rich. [J. B. A. ; L. C]
In many places ; common.

t Cheeseman, Manu'il, p. 165.

396 Transactions.

*Epilohium pictmn Petrie.

" On steep banks by the roadside in Balgueri Valley (Akaroa) and
Pigeon Bay Peak " : A. Wall.

*Epilohiuni alsinoides A. Cunn.

Common on the summits from Mount Bossu to Mount Herbert ;
Waikerikikeri ; Stony Bay Peak.

*Epilobium temiipes Hook. f.

Mount Herbert, 2.000 ft. : A. Wall.
*Epilobium insidare Haussk.

On swampy hillsides from sea-level to nearly 3,000 ft., common —
e.g., on the south side of Rocky Peak above the hilltop, and on the
northern and eastern sides of Mount Herbert near the summit : A. Wall.
Epilohium rotundifolium Forst. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common in moist places.

Epilohium linnaeoicles Hook. f.

Not common. Heathcote Valley ; Wainui : R. M. L. " In damp
stony places. Bush at the head of Stonv Bav ; southern face of Mount
Herbert, at about 2,500 ft. ; Dan Rogers Gully " : A. Wall.
Epilohium niomnuJarifolimn R. Cunn. [J. F. A. : L. C]

xlbundant on damp rocks and banks.
Ejnlobium nerterioides A. Cunn. [L. C]

Abundant in tussock-grasslands.
*EpiIohium macfopus Hook. [J. B. A.]

Southern side of Mount Herbert, near the top : A. Wall.
Epilohium novae-zeaJandiae Haussk.

Akaroa Summit Road, and elsewhere near the hilltops, and some-
times down to 500 ft. Very variable in form, and occasionally approach-
ing E. glahellum.

J. B. A. and J. F. A. record several other species which have been
seen by no other observers on the peninsula — e.g., {^)E. purpuratmn,
{^)E. microphyllum, {'^)E. crassum.

Fuchsia excorticata Linn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Everywhere common in the forest.

Fuchsia Coleusoi Hook. f. [J. F. A. : J. B. A. : L. C]
Common in the forest and by the wayside.

Family HalorrhagidaCeae.

Halorrhagis erecta Schindler. [J. F. A. : J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common in the open country and in scrub.
'^Halorrhagis depressa Walp.

Common along the summits ; everywhere above 1,500 ft.
M//riophyllum intermedium DC. [J. F. A.]

Cashmere Valley ; Lake Ellesmere ; Kaituna ; Wainui.

*Gunnera monoica Raoul. [R. ; J. B. A.]

On the ridge between Akaroa and Flea Bay ; Saddle Hill ; near
summit of Mount Herbert ; and in many other localities facing south
and south-west, usually above 1,500 ft., but coming down in Wainui
to less than 500 ft. (Akaroa is the type-locality.)

The Gunnera monoica recorded by J. F. A. from the sandhills is
doubtless (^)G. arenaria.

Laing. — Yegefdfimi of Bunl-s Peninsula. 397

Family Aualiaceak.

Nuthopanax arboreum Seem. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

One of the most abundant of forest-trees. Sometimes called '" fig-
wood '' by the settlers, or '' New Zealand fig. The surveyors' ugly
name of the North is here unknown.

^Nothopmiax Colensoi Seem. [J. B. A.]

Long Bay, in the beech forest, not common ; ]\Iount Herbert, in the
svibalpine scrub.

Nothopanax anomalum Seem.

Mount Pleasant (a few specimens only), and Caton's Bay.

J. F. A. and J. B. A. record (")P. simplex, but the record does not
seem to have been confirmed.

Schefflera digitata Forst. | J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Abundant ; called " ohau "' at Akaroa.

Pseudopavax crassifolium C. Koch var. unifoliolahmt Kirk. [J. F. A. :
J. B. A. ; L. C]
Not uncommon in the forest.

Pseudopanax ferox T. Kirk. [J. B. A.]

Little Akaloa ; Caton's Bay: R. M. L. Lake Forsyth: T. Kijk.
Stony Bay : J. Andersen ! And elsewhere, but quite uncommon.

Family Umbelliferae.

Hijdrocotyle elongata A. Cunu. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Mount Pleasant ; Barry's Bay ; not common.

H ijdrocotyle americana Linn. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Lyttelton Hills ; Stony Bay ; and doubtless elsewhere.

Hydrocotyle americana Linn. var. heterorneria Kirk. [J. B. A.; L. C]
Cashmere Valley.

Hydrocotyle novae-zealandiae DC. |L. C. ; J. B. A.]

Lyttelton Hills. I have not seen this on Banks Peninsula, but
doubtless it occurs.

Hydrocotyle moschata Forst. f. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Lyttelton Hills (and doubtless elsewhere), common. The most
abundant species of H ydrocot i/le in the neighbourhood.

Hydrocotyle microphylla A. Cunn. (?).

As Cheeseman points out, this may not be Cunningham's plant ;
but a small and very distinct form of Hydrocotyle agreeing with the
description of this sj)ecies in the Manual is found very commonly on
the tracks and in the bush, usually above 1,000 ft. I append a brief
description : Leaves four- or five-lobed, to the middle or slightly
beyond, about 5-7 mm. across, glabrous or occasionally slightly farinose,
lobes sometimes again notched. Petioles rather long (15-20 mm.), some-
times with a few isolated hairs. Umbels with 2-5 rays, almost sessile,
enclosed at the base by several translucent minute rotundate or broadly
oblong bracts. Flowers almost sessile, but peduncle elongatnig in fruit
to length of carpel. Fruit laterally compressed, with a rather promi-
nent lib on each face. Carpels rounded at the back. This differs from
H. americana in the rounded carpels and uniformly smaller size, and

398 Transactions.

from H. nome-zealandiae in the much smaller size and more deeply
indented leaves. The species is very distinct in appearance and has a
well-defined habitat.

J. B. A. records also {^)H. asiatica, {^)H. muscosa, and {^)H. dissecta.
H. asiatica is certainly to be expected ; but, though I have seen it grow-
ing freely as an imported weed in a garden on Cashmere Hills, I have
nowhere seen it in a natural habitat.

Schizeilema Hookeri Domin. [L. C]

Rather rare; usually at an altitude of 1,200ft. or upwards, on
southerly slopes or in forest, but in Checkley's Bush (Akaroa) and
Wainui reaching to within several hundred feet of the sea. Also occurs
at Mount Pleasant ; Castle Rock ; near Kennedy's Bush track ; and
elsewhere.

J. B. A. gives also {'^)Pozoa {i.e., Azorella) hydrocotyloides — a very
unlikely plant to be found here.

Apium prostration Labill. [J. B. A.]
Common on coastal rocks.

Apium prostratum Labill. xav. filiforme Hook.
Purau, Teddington, &c., in salt marshes.

*Oreomyrrhis andicola Endl. var. Colensoi Kirk.

In small quantities on the top of Mount Herbert : A Wall !

Crantzia. lineata Nutt. [J. B. A.]

In salt marshes, Heathcote Estuary, Kaituna, &c

Aciphylla Colensoi Hook. f.

Purau line, above 2,000 ft.

AcijyJiylla squarrosa Forst. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Once common ; now rapidly disapj^earing, jjarticularly in sheep-
country.

Anisotome aromatica Hook. f. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Banks Peninsula, common above 1 ,500 ft. ; but very rare on Ijvttel-
ton Hills, Cooper's Knobs, The Tors.

Anisotome Enysii (Kirk) Laing (?)|.

Dr. Cockayne considers this may not be tlie same as the Castle Hill
plant. Usually above 1,500 ft. Dover Castle ; Mount Sinclair ; Mount
Berard ; Purple Peak ; One Tree Hill.

J. B. A. records {^)Ligusticum piliferum, probably in error.

Angelica montana Cockayne. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Once common ; now only in rocky clefts and on shelves inaccessible
to sheep.

Angelica geniculata Hook. f. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common, usually near the sea-coast. Lyttelton ; Akaroa ; Kaituna ;
Waikerikikeri ; &c.

^Angelica rosaefolia Hook.

Akaroa : recorded by Raoul, but probably not seen since, though it
appears in J. B. A.'s list.

Daucus hrachiatns Sieb. [J. B. A. ; L. C]
Lyttelton Hills ; Castle Rock.

t Report on Scenery-preservation, 1914-15, p. 14.

Laing. — Vegetation of Banks Peninsula. 399

Family Cornaceae.

Corokia Cotoneaster Eaoul. [R. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant in rocky places near the hilltops, and more rarely on the
coast, as at Island Bay. (Akaroa is tlie type-locality.)

Griselinia littoralis Raoul. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. : L. C]

Abundant everywhere in the forest. (Akaroa is the type-locality.)

^Griselinia lucida Forst. f.

Waikerikikeri (rare) ; Little River (perhaps extinct) ; Stony Bay ;
sometimes on black or white pines. Probably its southernmost limit.

Family Ericaceae.

Gaultkeria antipoda. Forst f. [J. B. A.]

Banks Peninsula, 2,000 ft. and upwards ; usually prostrate and
creeping, and small-leaved. Identified (probably wrongly) with var.
depressa {Trans., vol. 46, p. 59). Lyttelton Hills (the erect form), on
peak between Cass Peak and Cooper's Knobs ; and at a low level in
Wainui; in manuka scrub.

J. B. A. gives also {^)G. rupesfris, which I have not seen.

Family Epacridaceae.

*Pe)itachondra pumila R. Br.

Near the top of Brasenose (perhaps extinct) : R. M. L. Stony Bay
Peak : A. Wall.

Ct/athodes acerosa Sol. [J. B. A. ; L. C]
Not uncommon amongst rocks.

Leucopogon Fmseri F. Muell. [R. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

1,500ft. and upward, not common; but coming down to sea-level
at Redcliffs.

Leucopogon fasciculatum A. Rich. (?). [J. B. A.]
Rapaki ; Kaituna ; Akaroa ; and elsewhere.

Dracophyllum acicularifolium Cockayne. [J. B. A.]

Abundant on rocky ledges, 1,600 ft. and upwards ; Cooper's Knobs,
and peak to eastward.

Family Myrsinaceae.

Myrsine UrviUei A. DC. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Everywhere common in the forest.

Myrsine divaricata A. Cunn. [J. B. A.]

Kennedy's Bush (one or two specimens) ; Le Bon's ; Mount Fitz-
gerald ; Kaituna ; &c. ; usually 1,200 ft. and upward.

J. B. A. gives also {-)M. nummiilaria ; but I doubt its occurrence.

Family Primulaceae.

Samolus repens Pers. var. jjrocumbens R. Knuth. [J. F. A.]
Coastal cliffs and beaches ; common.

400 Trarimciions.

Family Gentian ace ae.

°.S'e6aea omta R. Br. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Port Cooper : Lyall. Lake Ellesmere : T. Kirk.

* Liparo phjillum Gunnii Hook. f.
Lake Ellesmere.

J. B. A. includes {-)Genti(tna moufaiia Forst., but almost certainly
in error.

Family Apocynaceae.

Parsonsia keterophylla A. Cunn. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant in the forest.

Parsonsia capsularis R. Br. var. rosea Cockayne. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. \
. L. C]
Very common in the forest ; often more abundant than the pre-
ceding. (Akaroa is the type-locality of the variety.)

Family Convolvulaceae.

Calystegia tuguriorum R. Br. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Not uncommon in the forest.

C. septum occurs in abundance by the waysides and in gardens, but
is probably introduced.

Calystegia Soldanella R. Br. [J. B. A.]
On sandy beaches.

Convolvulus eruhescens Sims.

Common on dry hillsides, particularly those exposed to the sea-wind.

Dichondra repens Forst. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Less common than the following.

DichoHclra brevifolia Buch.

Abundant in dry open ground, and often found in gardens (Cash-
mere Hills). The flowers at the tips of the branches are almost sessile.

Family Boraginaceae.

{^)Myosotis spathulata Forst. f. [J. B. A.]

A form from Mount Pleasant has been so identified by Petrie ; but
further specimens are required.

Myosotis pygmea Col. [J. B. A., as M. antarctica (?).]

GoUan's Bay ; Sugarloaf ; behind Governor's Bav ; usually above
1,000 ft.

Myosotis australis R. Br. var. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Lyttelton Hills, southern side, at the foot of cliffs and on rocky
ledges, usually about 600-800 ft. This plant has been thus identified
by T. F. C. and L. C. ; while Petrie has hesitated to identif}' it with
any known species. It is undoubtedly intermediate between M. aus-
■ tralis and M. Forsteri, and where it not for the Aveight of authority
against me I should consider it more closely allied to M. Forsteri than
to M. australis. It differs from M. australis in the almost prostrate
stems, less hispid stem and leaves, shorter racemes ; the newly ripe
seeds are polished and shining, dark brown, not black. It differs from
M. Forsteri in being much stouter, the pedicels are shorter and do not

Laing. — V r(j( tdtion (if Bdnks Peninsula. 101

equal the calyx, the leaves are spathulate rather than orbicular-oblong
or oblong, being one and a half to twice as long as broad. I'he nutlets
are ovoid, not orbicular. The colour when dry is not so dark as that
of M. austmlis, nor so green as that of M. Forsteri. The flowers are
invariably wliite. the calyx tubular in the flower, becoming campanulate
in the fruit. 1 propose, however, to leave the discussion of this and
other critical species for a subsequent paper.

*Myosotis Forsteri lichni. [J. B. A.]

A more typical form of .1/. Forsteri occurs on the Akaroa-Flea
Bay Eidge above 2,000 ft.

J. B. A. has also (-)M. capitata.

Family Veebenaceae.

Teiicridium parvifolium Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Mount Pleasant ; Caton's Valley. Perhaps now extinct in the former
locality.

Family Labiatae.

Mentha Ciirtninghamii Benth. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]
Hoon Hay Valley ; hills behind Tai Tapu.

{'-)Scutellaria has been recorded by J. A. B., but probably in error.

Family Solan ace ae.

Solanum aviculare Forst. f. |J. F. A. : J. B. A. ; L. C]

A common weed in country that has been recently cleared of bush,
and in the outskirts of the forest ; not common elsewhere.

Solanum nigrum Linn. [J. F. A. ; L. C]

An abundant weed in gardens and elsewhere, appearing as an
introduction.

Family Scrophulariaceae.

Mimulus repens R. Br.

Heathcote Valley ; Kaituna (Lake Ellesmere).

''{^)Mazus pumilio R. Br. [Lyall; J. B. A.]
A doubtful inhabitant.

{^)Gratiola nana is also recorded by J. B. A.

*Limosella tenuifolia Nutt.
Lake Ellesmere.

Specimens collected by T. Kirk under the name L. aqualicn are in
the Canterbury Museum.

Veronica salicifolia Forst. f. var. communis Cockayne. [J. B. A. : L. C]
Abundant in scrub and near the edge of the forest.

Veronica leiophyUa Cheesem. [L. C]

This is the F. ligustrifoUa Cunn. of Armstrong's list. It is abundant
on the upper fringes of the bush, and is often not found elsewhere. In
the Kaituna Valley it occurs all through the forest, reaching from over
2,000 ft. down to sea-level ; in other places where it comes down to
sea-level {e.g. Akaroa, Crown Island, Little Akaloa) the leaves become
shorter and broader than in the typical form.

402 Transactions.

^Veronica hnxifoJia Bentli (forma).

One plant only seen, on Sununit Track in Greenland Bush, Mount
Herbert.

(-)F. pimeleoides, reported by Lyall from Port Cooper, may possibly,
though not probably, be V. Lavaudiana. At any rate, nothing resembling
V. pimeleoides occurs near Lyttelton.

Veronica Lavaudiana Raoul. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Everywhere abundant on rocky faces above 800 ft. or 900 ft. I have
never seen it on the plains. Travers's record of it from there is probably
an error. (Akaroa is the type-locality.)

''^{^)Veronica Raoulii Hook. f. [R. ; J. B. A.]

I cannot help thinking that there must be some error in the record
of a Banks Peninsula habitat for this species. It is said by Hooker
to have been received by him from Raoul with specimens of V.
Lavaudiana : but it seems improbable that such a careful botanist as
Raoul should have confused two such different species. J. B. A., no
doubt following Hooker, records it as from the peninsula. It is not,
however, a plant which is likeh' to have become extinct. Growing in
similar situations to V. Lavaudiana, one might have exjiected it to
have been found in conjunction with it ; but I have hunted assiduously
for it in all likely places and have been unable to find it. The nearest
])oint to the ])eninsula where I have found it is at White Rock, behind
Rangiora, where a reduced form occurs.

^Veronica Li/allii Hook. f. (forma). f

Mount Fitzgerald, on the southern face of the big cliff near the
summit.

*°Veronica canescens Kirk.
Lake Forsyth : Kirk.

(-)F. cupressoides, {')V. lanceolata, (^)F. vernicosa, and (^)F. stricta
(a variety of F. salicifolia) are also recorded by J. B. A. V. ciipressoides
probably does not occur on the peninsula. F. lanceolala is a variety
of the well-known F. catarractae, and is also quite unlikely to occur.
Both J. F. A. and J. B. A. list (-)F. Colensoi, a very unUkely species.

*Onrisia ynacrophylla Hook. f. (forma). "f [J. B. A.]

Abundant, often covering the ground with matted patches, from
about 2,300 ft. upwards. It occasionally extends into the upper edge
of the forest, when it becomes more erect.

^Euphrasia zelandica Wettst.

Southern side and top of Mount Herbert and Castle Rock, 2,500 ft.
and upward. Also found by A. W.

J. B. A. records {^)E. Monroi, but it is quite unlikely that it occurs.

Family Lentibulariaceae.

*Utricidana monanthos Hook. f. [J. B. A.]

Lake Ellesmere : J. B. A. There are specimens from this locality
in the herbarium of the Canterbury Museum. At one time it occurred
in a bog in the neighbourhood of Christchurch.

■f Trans., vol. 46, p. 59.

Laing. — Vegetatinii of liavkii /'( nii/sii/ti . 4:03

Family Myoporaceae.

Mijoporum laetum Banks & Sol. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Abundant near the sea-coast, and sometimes inland.

Family Plantaginaceae.

Plantago Raoidii Decaisne. [E. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Seen by me, but exact locality overlooked : R. M. L. (Akaroa is the
type-locality.)

* Plantago spafhnlata Hook. f.

Summit of Mount Herbert : A. Wall !

Plantago Brownii Rapin. [J. B. A.]
Heathcote Valley.

Family Rubiaceae.

The genus Coprosma has caused me much trouble, and I am iiot quite
satisfied as yet that the list for the peninsula is complete. I have to thank
Mr. Petrie for much kind assistance here.

*Coprosma giandijolia Hook. f. (?).

A few plants which perhaps belong to this species occur mi the creek
in R J. Fleming's place at Port Levy, and also on the sides of the main
creek at Pigeon Bay. On submitting specimens to Dr. Cockayne he
declared them to be typical C. grandijolia This determination, of course,
gives a large southerly extension to the range of the species. A very
similar form occurs in Caton's Bay, and also at Gore Bay, on the northern
side of Pegasus Bay. The leaves are membranous, but little glossy, and
range up to 8 in. long ; and the peduncles are over 2 in. in length. In
spite of this it appears to me probable that these are merely specimens of
C lucida of luxuriant growth. Growing in the warm, sheltered valleys
of Port Levy and Pigeon Bay, under the shelter of the forest, the leaves
have become more membranous, the whole plant has become more elon-
gated, and the leaves are confined to the ends of the twigs. This
seems to me to be more particularly so as intermediates may be found
as in Caton's Valley and on the back of the Sugarloaf. However, the
matter must be left for fuller future discussion. In spite of the fact
that Cheeseman considers C. grandijolia one of the most distinct species
of the genus, it seems to me that C. lucida grown under the same con-
ditions \,ould approximate closely to it or become identical with it.

Coprosma lucida Forst. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common in the forests and on rocky promontories.

Coprosma robusta Raoul. [R. ; J F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Akaroa ; Stony Bay ; Lyttelton ; Little River ; &c. (Akaroa is
the type-locality.)

Coprosma Cunninghamil Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common and very variable, extending from seashore to 1,500 ft.
or 2,000 ft. ; usually in scrub.

Coprosma rotundifolia A. Cunn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common in forest.

Coprosma areolata Cheesem. [L. C]

Not uncommon — Lyttelton Hills ; Port Levy ; Pigeon Bay ; and
elsewhere. Varies considerably in the amount of pubescence on the
leaves.

404 Transactions.

Coprosnia rhamnoides A. Cunn. [J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common in tlie forest and in scrub.

*Coprosma parviflora Hook. f. [J. B. A.]

Mount Sinclair ; Brasenose ; about 2,000 ft. and upwards.

Coprosma crassifolia Col. [L. C]

Pigeon Bay ; Akaroa ; Mount Sinclair ; Lyttelton ; and generally
common on open stony hillsides that have once been bushed.

{'^)Coprosma rigida Cheesem. (?).

Mount Pleasant ; Otahuna. Identification perhaps not quite certain

Coprosma rubra Petrie.

Near Cooper's Knobs : R. M. L. Lyttelton : A. W.

Coprosma virescens Petrie. [T. K.]

Pigeon Bay ; Mount Pleasant ; Lake Forsyth. With yellowish-
green branchlets in the forest, but passing out into the open at Lake
Forsyth, where it forms matted bushes that in autumn have brilliant
red almost leafless twigs.

^Coprosma acerosa A. Cunn. var. arenaria Kirk. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]
On the coast near Long Lookout Point.

Coprosma propinqua A. Cunn. [J. B. A. ; L. C]

Lyttelton Hills ; Kaituna ; and elsewhere ; in many situations.

Coprosma linariijoUa Hook. f. [J. B. A. ; L. C.]

Common in the forest, particularly above 1,000 ft., but occasionally
coming down to sea-level.

J. F. A. gives also {-)C. spafhulata, an Auckland species ; (")C'.
cuneata, usually an alpine plant ; and (")C. foetidissima, which miglit
be expected, but does not, I think, occur.

*Nertera depressa Banks & Sol. [J. B. A.]

Castle Rock, boggy ground, 2,000 ft.: R. M. L. Western side of
Mount Herbert, near the summit : A. W.

*'^{^)Nertem dichondraefolia Hook. f.

Akaroa : Raoul (as N. gracilis Raoul).

Galitim umbrosum Sol. [J. B. A.]

Common in stony ground, u.'-.aally near the outskirts of the forest.

Galium tenuicaule A. Cunn. [J. B. A.]
Swamp, Cashmere V;il!( y.

Asperula perpusiUa Hook, f [J. B. A.]

Kennedy's Bush tnitk ; One Tree Hill.

Family Campanulaceae.

°Pratia angulata Hook. f. [J. B. A.]

Lyttelton Hills : Cockayne. Between Stony Bay and Flea Bay,
damp places : A. W.

^Lobelia anceps Linn. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Lsland Bay, seashore ; coastal cliffs, Waikerikikeri : R. M. L. Child-
ren's Bay (Akaroa) and sea-coast generally : A. W.

Wahlenbergia gracilis A. DC. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant in tussock-grasslands.

Laing. — Vegetal ion of Bmiks Peninsula. 405

WaUeHbergia alhomarginala Hook. (= W. saxicola of Cheesemaii's Manual).
Mount Sinclair ; Castle Rock ; above 2,500 ft. : R. M. L. Akaroa
hilltops, common : A. W. A coastal form is said to exist under the cliffs
at Lyttelton Heads, but 1 have not seen it.

Family Goodeniaceae.

Selliera radicans Cav. [ J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Salt marshes, Teddington and elsewhere.

Family Candolleaceae.
Forstera tenella Hook. f.

Abundant on the south and south-west faces at the head of Stony
Bay and adjacent heights, western face of Mount Herbert : A. W. This
species, found by Professor Wall, must be added to the list of the sub-
alpine inhabitants of the peninsula, together with several other plants
found by the same botanist : e.g., Epilobium tenuipes, E. macropus,
Oreomyrrhis andicola .

Family Compositae.

*Lagenophom pumila Oheeseman. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Checkley's Bush ; Akaroa ; and probably elsewhere.

Lagenoj)1iora petiolata Hook. f. [J. F. A.; J. B. A.; L. C]

Common in the tussock-grasslands.

*Lage)iophom pinnatifida Hook. f. var. hirsiitissima Cockayne.

Ridge between Waikerikikeri and Le Bon's, plentiful ; a few plants
on the top of French Peak and on the Long Bay Ridge.

I have to thank Mr. Cheeseman for the determination. The rays
are in more than one series ; but I have not seen any ripe achenes. The
plant agrees well with the description.

Brachycome Sindairii Hook. f. [J. F. A.]

One of the forms of this very variable plant is abundant in the district
It has been determined as B. Thoinsoni by Cockayne, f but all the speci-
mens I have examined have radical leaves only. The plants on the
Lyttelton Hills are usually small, and the leaves often but little lobulated,
though membranous rather than fleshy. It seems to me to be distinct
from B. Thomsoni as I have seen it in Stewart Island ; and it is quite
distinct from a subalpine form to be found in soutii Nelson with fleshy
shining green entire leaves and large flowers.

Olearia arborescens Cockayne and Laing. [J. B. A.]

Some flowerless specimens have been seen on Mount Herbert by
Professor Wall. It has also been recorded by J. F. A. from the Dry
Bush, where it does not now exist.

*Olearia ilicifolia Hook. f.

Purau line, and occasionally elsewhere on the outer fringes of the
bush above 2,000 ft.

*Olearia cymbifolia Hook. f.

In similar positions to the preceding, but even less common.

Olearia avicenniaefolia Hook. f. [R. ; J. B. A.]

Akaroa : Raoul. Coastal scrub. Pigeon Bay : R. M. L. At one
time it grew under the hill-crests behind Governor's Bay, but is perhaps
now extinct there.

■f Bcpurt on Scenery-preservation, 1 914-1 .>, p. 1.").

406 Transactions.

Olearia Forsteri Hook. f. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Abundant, especially near the coast-line.

Olearia fragrantissima Petrie. [L. C]

Decanter Bay ; Mount Pleasant ; Crown Island : Pt. M. L. Lake
Forsyth : T. Kirk. Near Suniner-Lyttelton Road : A. W. ; L. C.
This plant does not appear to be known north of Banks Peninsula.

'^Olearia Hectori Hook. f. {I).

I obtained specimens of a plant which may belong to this species
near Le Bon's, but it was not in flower, and the identification is uncertain.

J. B. A. records (^)O. virgata, and it may occur. It grows, or grew,
on the banks of the adjacent Heathcote River, but I have notseen
it on the hills.

Oelmisia longifolia Cass. var. gntcilenta (Hook, f.) Kirk. [J. F. A. : J. B A. •
L. C]
The slender scape and narrow leaves (about 5 mm. broad) probablv
are sufficient marks of this variety. The upper surface of the leaf is
dark, almost black, in colour ; and often flat, not revolute, this character
probably depending upon the amount of moisture received ; and the
flowers are often large, being fully 40 mm. in diameter. The lower half
of the margin of the leaf is slightly toothed and repand. whilst the
upper half is entire. I can scarcely think that the branching of the
scapes referred to by Cockayne {Trans., vol. 49, p. 58) is at all common,
as it has not been noticed by me. At one time common in the tussock
lands, but now, I think, scarcer.

Gelmisia Machaui Raoul. [R. ; J. B. A.]

In various places in the neighbourhood of Akaroa, from sea-level to
2,000 ft. ; usually growing on a damp clift' or near the side of a stream.
(Akaroa is the type-locality.)

J. B. A. records also (-)C'. coriacea, OC. LyaUii, and (^)C spectahilis.
There is no trace of them now, and I cannot think they have occurred
here recently.

Vittaclinia australis A. Rich. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Abundant.

Vittadinia australis A. Rich. var. linearis Kirk, a very distinct form,
also occurs between Lyttelton Heads and Heathcote Valley, but is pro-
bably an introduction.

Gnaphalium luteo-alhum Linn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Abundant both as a garden-weed and as an inhabitant of the tussock-
grasslands.

GnaphaJi nm japonicu7n Thunb. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common.

Gnaphalium colliyium Labill. [J. B. A. ; L. C]
Common.

Raoidia glabra Hook. f. [L. C]

Lyttelton Hills, rare ; behind Hoon Hav ; and elsewhere abundant
above 2,000 ft.

*Raoulia suhsericea Hook. f.

On the higher summits between Akaroa and Castle Rock : R. M. L. :
A. W.

Laixg. — Vegetal i(in of Banks Feninsula. 407

Raoulia lutescens Kirk.

One specimen only seen, on the new Lyttelton Sumner Road, about
600 ft. ; possibly from seed blown up from some river-bed on the plains.

*Raoulia australis Hook. f. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

A rare and disappearing species ; one specimen only seen, on the
top of Purple Peak. (Akaroa is the type-locality.)

Raoidia Monroi Hook. f.

Dyer's Pass : R. M. L. : A. W. Mount Herbert and elsewhere : A. W.

J. B. A. also records {-)R. tenuicaulis, but I have not seen it.

HeUchri/sum hellidioides Willd. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Lyttelton Hills, rare ; but elsewhere not uncommon above 1,500 ft.

Helichri/sum fdicaitle Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Abundant.

Helichrysum glomerafum Benth. & Hook. [R. ; J. F. A. : J. B. A. ; L. C]

*Cassinia VauvilUersii Hook. f. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

In scrub, Mount Herbert and elsewhere, but not common.

J. B. A. gives also {^)C. fuJvida, a probable inhabitant, which may
be found on sandy beaches, but I have not noted it. J. F. A. records,
no doubt in error, (^)C. leptophyUa.

Craspedia unifloia Forst. f. (one or more vars.).

Lyttelton Hills, and probably elsewhere, but less common than
formerly.

J. F. A. and J. B. A. give also {-)C. aJpina, but this is a most
unlikely inhabitant of the peninsula.

Cotula coronopifolia Linn. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]
Common in ditches and sluggish streams.

Cotula australis Hook. f.

Abundant, and becoming a pest in gardens. Appears to be intro-
duced.

Cotula minor Hook. f.

Seen only on Mount Pleasant, at the back of Lyttelton, under the
drip from overhanging rock or on moist faces.

Cotula Haastii Kirk. [Haast ; T. K. ; L. C]

Common on dry banks, particularly near the sea, or on the seaward
side of the hills. It is said to have been found on the Canterbury Plains
by von Haast, but I have not seen it there. The common species in the
neighbourhood of Christchurch amongst the pastures are C. dioica and
C. squalid a.

J. B. A.'s records of (-)C'. pectinata as on the peninsula perhaps
refers to C. Haastii.

Cotula squalida Hook. f. [J. B. A.]

Common in the tussock-grasslands.

Cotula dioica Hook. f. [.J. B. A. : L. C]

Two forms are common, one of the salt marshes and one of the hills ;
but it is probably useless to attempt at present to define them.

J. B. A. gives also (-)C. pyrethrifolia, an milikely alpine plant.

Erechtites prenanthoides DC. [L. C]

Common, especially in burnt bush.

408 Transactions.

Erechtites qiiaihidenfala DC. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]
Coniiuon by the wayside and in dry ground.

*Erechtites f/labrescens Kirk.

Stony Bay ; Kaituna ; and doubtless elsewhere.
'^Erechtites arguta DC. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

Little Akaloa.
Senecio saxifnigoides Hook. f. |.l. B. A.]

Abundant, Lyttelton Hills from Gebbie's Pass to Lyttelton North
Head, particularly on the southerly faces of the hills from about 600 ft.
and upwards ; occasionally coming down to 300 ft.

For a discussion of the characters and distribution of this species
see article in Trans., vol. 50, p. 198, by Professor A. Wall

Senecio lagopus Eaoul. [R. ; J. F. A. ; J. B. A.]

On or near the summits almost continuously from Akaroa Heads to
Gebbie's Pass. In a few places near Gebbie's Pass it crosses on to the
Lyttelton Hills. (Akaroa is the type-locality.)

I am reported by Wall {loc. cit.) as stating that *S'. saxifrngoides
occurs on the peninsula. I now wish to withdraw that statement, as
it was due to an imperfect understanding of the differences between
the two species. There are several forms of *S'. lagopiis to be found on
the Canterbury Plains, which differ considerably from the type form at
Akaroa, and the inclusion of these in my idea of the type led me into
error. Undoubtedly the species lagopiis as at present constituted con-
tains several subspecies which require differentiation.

J. F. A. records also {-)S. hellidioides. Typical heUidioides does not
seem to occur on the peninsula, though young forms of S. lagopus are
often indistinguishable from it.

Senecio lautiis Forst. f. [J. F. A. : J. B. A. ; L. C]

Common in fairly constant forms, sea-level to 1,500 ft.

Senecio sciadophilus Raoul. [R. ; J. B. A. : L. C]

Sea-level to 2,000 ft. ; not common. I have seen one plant at
Kennedy's Bush, and it is fairly common on the Summit Track from
behind Robinson's Bay to Mount Sinclair. It occurs more rarely in the
lowland forest, as in Hay's Reserve, Pigeon Bay, Balgueri Valley, &c ,
It was reported from the Dry Bush (Lyttelton Hills), but is probably
now extinct there. (Akaroa is the type-locality.)

J. B. A. includes also {~)S. odoratus var. Banksii, a most unlikely
plant.
Microseris scapigera Sch. Bip. [J. F. A. ; J. B. A. ; L. C]

Lyttelton Hills : L. C. Castle Rock: R. M. L. Very uncommon here
^Taraxacum mageJlanicum Comm.

Lyttelton Hills : L. C.

J. F. A. records {-)Crepis novae-zelandiae, which probably does not
occur.
Sonckus oleraceus Linn.

Abundant, but doubtfully native.

*SoHcJius as per Hill var. litt oralis Kirk.

Sea-cliffs at Pigeon Bay ; coast near Xikau Palm Gully ; and doubt-
less elsewhere. Quite distinct from the British Sonckus asper.

J. B. A. records (^)S. asper — the typical form, I presume — which, no
doubt, occurs ; but I have not as yet identified it here.

Wall. — I'loiiuiicittI ion of Scicnfific 7'r/'///.s- /// y ( ir Zidland. 409

Art. XXXV. — The Pronimciati<))i of Scientific Terms in Netr Zealand,
with Special Reference to the Terms of Botanif.

By Professor A. Wall.

[Read before the New Zealand Institute, at Christcliurch, 4t/i-StJi February, 1919:
received by Editor, 11th Nareh. 1919 ; issued sejMtratcly, 19th August, 1919.]

The fact that the pronunciation of scientific terms in general and of
botanical terms in particular is very variable, not to say chaotic, in New
Zealand needs, unfortunately, no demonstration. An attempt is here made
to show how this state of affaii's might possibly be remedied. The cjuestion
of the pronunciation of Greek and Latin among modern nations is not here
dealt with. Although it would not be easy to draw up in detail a scheme
for a '' modern " pronunciation which should be satisfactory to all, yet it
would not he impossible, and the mode already adopted in the schools of
New Zealand comes near enough to the ideal for the purposes of this paper.
It would be beyond its scope to deal with the pronunciation of Latin and
Greek as it varies in England, Scotland, France, Italy, and Germanv, oi
to go back over the sixteenth-century controversies of Erasmus, Eeuchlin,
and Sir Thomas Smith. It is assumed throughout that a '' modern " mode
can be found— approximately such as used in the schools of New Zealand —
and that such a system stands opposed to the [)urely " insular " or " English "
system, in which all the foreign words are sounded simply as if thev were
English, as is recommended in Field's Feriif; of New Zealand. The details
of any such modern mode would be settled, if the proposals here outlined
came to anything, by the special committee set up for the purpose. The
|)honetic system here used is that of the Oxford Dictionary, but it has
been found necessary to modify it a little. The sound of s in measare (z)
is represented here by zh. The symbol sh is retained. The symbol o may
represent either open or close o. Thus in Australia our rendering gives
o as the first sound, and this is an open o. The stress or accent is indicated
here by an acute accent following the stressv^d syllable.

The writer hopes to be pardoned for the rather hopeless tone of some of
his conclusions. The fact is that the question is the most complicated and
difficult with which he has ever been faced, involving as it does the historv
of the ])ronunciation of Greek and Latin among the different nations of
Europe during the last thousand and especially during the last four hun-
dred years (since the Reformation) ; the variant " modern " or " reformed "
systems, and the degree of success which has attended the attempt to intro
duce them, or any of them, into the schools of England ; the purelv
scientific question of phonetics ; the more practical question of phonetic
script ; the psychological question of inherited or acquired speech-instincts,
and especially the instincts which govern accentuation or stressing of
syllables and baffle all scientific inquiry ; the partly practical consideration
of the exchange of ideas and knowledge between students of New Zealand
themselves, and between those students and teachers and those of other
countries — e.g., of England, Germany, Japan ; the political question — New
Zealand's position within the British Empire, and her state of intellectual
tutelage ; the purely practical question of the vocabulary of the farmer
and the gardener, &c., wdaich largely coincides with that of the university
and technical instructor ; and, lastly, tlie purely philological or linguistic

410 Transactions.

questions, such as accentuation or stressing, and the relation of the scientific
vocabulary to that of common life. Many of these considerations conflict
with one another ; others demand more knowledge and research than the
importance of the subject seems to warrant ; and, on the whole, the writer
has found the subject exceedingly puzzling. It seemed to him all the more
necessary, then, that some attempt should be made to deal with it, and
this paper represents such an attempt.

It may be added that the proposals here outlined are calculated to
produce their effect only upon the rising generation. We older scientific
men (if the author may be allowed to use the first person) are hardened
in sin and beyond hope.

The only logical scientific system possible would be got by the adoption
of a " Continental " Latin pronunciation, or as near an approximation
thereto as circumstances might permit. This would have to be rigidly
observed so that no exception or anomaly could occur. The adoption
of any such system is, however, rendered difficult or impossible by the
following considerations : —

(1.) New Zealand, being a part of the British Empire, should look to
Great Britain as its scientific metropolis ; but the unreformed " English "
or " insular " pronunciation of Latin still obtains largely in England, so
that many, if not all, of the older scientific men use this pronunciation
of Latin and Greek botanical and other scientific terms. It will easily be
seen how this concerns imported professors, visiting English botanists, and
New Zealand students continuing their studies in England. An imported
professor, for example, using the insular mode and not choosing to alter it
might be almost incomprehensible to his students, all of whom are familiar
only with a " reformed " mode.

(2.) Numbers of words, or parts of words, in the botanical vocabulary
appear also in ordinary speech, perfectly anglicized : —

(a.) Geranium,, Viola, Gentian, Calceolaria, Gijpsophila, Geum, Angelica,

and other generic names tend naturally to be pronounced in the

English manner, especially by farmer and gardener ; so also

Pinus in forestry.

(6.) Names of native plants which have become familiar to the general

public of New Zealand through cultivation or otherwise have

been anglicized beyond recall, such as Celmisia or Senecio.

(c.) Parts of terms like micro-, uni-, hi-, hydro-, austral-, occurring

commonly in such words as microscope, universal, Involve,

hydrophobia, Australia, and thoroughly anglicized, tend to be

sounded anglice when used scientifically. Thus hydrocofyle is

usually pronounced haidrocot'ile ; but the two y's in it equally

represent a Greek v, so that the word ought to be eithei'

hai'drokotai'le or hi'drokot'ile. Again, it feels uncomfortable to

speak of " vittadinia australis " as growing in " ostreilia."

(d.) Special difficulties occur where these words have to be inflected.

If thev be kept Latin in sound they should have a Latin ]ilural :

Thus geum should have plural gea ; the Englisli dzhiam should

have clzhiemz. But words like hydrocotyle, as noticed above, are

neither Latin nor English, as usually pronounced ; and such

]ilurals as genera (= dzhenera) are established though genus is

pronounced as English dzhinas.

(3.) The vocabulary consists largely of personal names, more or less

successfully latinized, from many languages — e.g., English, Scotch, Irish,

Wall. — PronuiicintioH of Scientific Tennf in New Zealand. 411

French. German, Dutch, Scandinavian languages. In any perfectly logical,
scientific scheme these must be remorselessly latinized in sound — e.g., all
r's must be trilled ; the ch in Gaudichaudiana, Deschampsia, Grisebachii,
Dieffenhachii, Chapmani, Chathamica, Cheesemanii, Archeria, must be con-
sistently sounded as k only ; the ie of Petrie and Guthrie as i + e ;
the th of Smith, Guthrie, &c., as t only ; the ay and ai of Cockayniana,
Blairii, Claytonia, as ai ; the oo of Hooker, Doodiu, as o. The J of any
Johnson i must be J =^ y, not J = dzh ; a'l in Gaiidichaudi, Vauthiera,
Gaidtheria, australe, Mackaui, must be au, not 6 close or open ; Raoulia
must be raovlia ; Youngii becomes jovngii ; Roaghii, rovgii.

Examples of terms which would have to be altered greatly if con-
sistently latinized : —

Guthrie- Smithiana, gutrie-smitiana, not ga^ri-smipiana ; Hookeri

(Bulbinella), hokeri, not liukerai ; Fairchildii {Pittosporum),

fairkildii, not fertshaildiai ; Cheesemanii (Liczida), kesemanii,

not tshizmaniai ; CampheUensis (Celmisia), kampbellensis, not

kambelensis ; Petriei (Carex), petriei, not pitriai ; Menziesii

{Fagus), menziezii, not menzlziai ; Matthetcsii {Ranunculus),

mattevzii, not mael^iuziai ; Stewartiae (Senecio), stevartie (or -ai),

not stiuatiai ; Stackhousia, stakhovzia (or -sia), not staekhauzio ;

Featherstonii {Cotida), featerstonii, not fetSestoniai ; Walkeri

(Celmisia), valkeri, not wokrtrai.

This leads to impossibilities, as some combinations of sounds in such

words are impossible in Latin — e.g., oiv in Townsoni, Brownii ; dg in Edgerleyi

and Tnnhridgense ; iea in Petrieana, &c. ; ew in Matiheivsii ; ou in Youngii ;

ough in Roughii. All double consonants must be sounded double : Hulton-

iana, Dallii, &c. Our present terminology is full of partly latinized

pronunciations like mackauai, cunninghamiai, and in fact nearly all the

terms in -i. The alternative is to pronounce such names according to the

usage of the language from which they come, and this if logically and

rigidly observed leads to difficulties almost as great ; barbarous compromises

and approximations result. The French or German botanist visitor may

find the British names just as hard and puzzling [e.g., Buchanani, Yoinigii)

as the German terms are to those who know no German. All botanists

cannot be also trained linguists. Where an orthographical device like the

German ne or oe (as in Muehlenbeckia, Koeleria) or our own ea (as in

Pearsoni) or ie (as in Petrie) or final e occurs, it seems absurd to latinize

the symbol and pronounce it phonetically {e.g., to sound the second e in

Petrieana or Field and the third in Cheeseman) ; yet to do otherwise

undoubtedly introduces an anomaly into any logical or perfectly scientific

scheme. The same is true of symbols which have become silent (/ in

Walkeri) or now stand for a sound quite other than that originally signified

{ow in Brownii, eiv in Matiheivsii) ; and these again offer puzzles and

pitfalls for the foreigner. There is no reason why we should not have a

New Zealand species " Cholmondeleyi," which, with us, if we had only

ourselves to consider would be tshamliai ; while to the foreigner, guided

by the spelling alone, it would be kolmondeleii.

(4.) Even where a uniform " reformed " pronunciation has been intro-
duced, as in the schools of New Zealand, there remains room for inconsist-
encies and local variations, and it proves most difficult or impossible to
persuade, force, or wheedle the young into use of certain sounds, especially
the true short u as in sub, and the long e as in -es (Erechtites), which is
universally sounded in New Zealand like a in same {= ei). Again, ae in
some schools = ai, in others e or ei.

412 Transactions.

(5.) Accentuation or stressing offers innumerable and often insuperable
difficulties. The English rule of accentuation, which the genius of the
language absolutely demands, draws the stress as far back as possible,
often placing it in situations most awkward for any tongue other than
an English one ; and English stresses or emphasizes one or two syllables
in a polysyllable at the expense of the rest to a degree unknown in any
other language, so that, even if every vowel be given its correct Latin
(Continental) value, the word may yet be pronounced in such a way as
to be completely delatinized and to seem unintelligible to any but a Briton
{PiUos'porum, Meli'cytus, macroph' ylla, Orthoc'enis), especially as the vowel-
values themselves alter enormously according to the incidence of the stress —
e.g., 0 in macroph' ylla and o in nohile. This linguistic instinct is most profound,
and amounts to a physical compulsion which can be resisted only by a very
few specially constituted persons. It also a2)pears to work inconsistently,
as it does in ordinary English ; thus we tend to place the stress in the
" English position " in pronouncing, say, Pteros'tylis, Hypol'epis, m,ultif'idum,
Gypsoph'ila, Hype'ricum (and in most words which are in general or everyday
use, e.g., by gardeners), but not in Gloss' ostig' ma, He'lichry'sum, Leu'copo'gon,
mac'roca'lyx, &c., where the weight of the first or the third syllable, or the
nature of the consonantal bridges, renders the " Englisli " })ronunciation
difficult or impossible. And there is here no line to be drawn ; individual
practice varies largely. These difficulties are far greater than those, so
much discussed in the past, which depend upon the quantity of the
vowel (as in the case of Clematis or Clematis, and Gladiolus or Gladiolus).
However hard it may be to learn, an even or nearly even distribution of
the stresses must be accjuired if anything like a Latin pronunciation is
to be acliieved, and this point will have to be specially attended to in
the teaching of Latin in the schools. We must learn, that is, to say
brachycome, not brachy'come ; cyperaceae, not sai'perei'sil ; himenofilum,
not hai'menofi'lum or haimenof'ilum ; abrotanella, not ab'rotanel'la ;
bukanani, not biukan'^nai ; ligustikum. not ligus'tikum ; aromatikum, not
ar'omat'ikum.

(6.) A great part of the technical vocabulary of botany is the same,
in its elements, as that of the other sciences — biology, chemistry, palaeon-
tology, &c. — and whatever system is adopted for any one of these must
also be adopted for all. The very names zoology, biology, and palaeontology,
in their usual anglicized pronunciation, serve to illustrate and emphasize
the great difficulties involved in any such scheme, since it would seem
absurd to call a science biology (baiolodzhi) and to s])eak, within the
science, of biogenesis instead of baiodzhenisis. The problem is thus further
complicated, for it is essential that there should be complete unanimity
and agreement in practice among all the members, for instance, of the
staffs of the University colleges and of all technical institutions, agricul-
tural and experimental colleges where the sciences are taught. Tlie (juestion
is tl\us seen to be only a part of a very much bigger one.

(7.) Though this paper deals specially with the names of New Zealand
plants, tlie whole vocabulary of botanical science is, of course, involved.
In this case, as in that of any other science, a certain part of this vocabulary
has already passed into ordinary speech and is anglicized in sound. This
is no constant (juantity ; at any time, for any out of very many reasons,
terms of any science pass over from the teclmical to the everyday usage,
and there is usually a fairly large number of terms, at any given moment
of time, in the vocabulary of any science which are indeterminate in this

Wall. — Pronunciafiou of Scientific Terms in New Zealand. 413

respect — some speakers treating them as scientific terms and pronouncing
them accordingly, others using them as " everyday " English. Thus genus
and species are pronounced as English — dzhlnos, spishls, not genus, spekies ;
chloride is English (-aid, not -id), while chlorine is indeterminate (both -in
and -ain). An excellent example is the geological term stratum, pronounced
by dift'erent speakers as stratum and streitum. If the pi. is strata, then the
a is a, not ei (c/. Lycopodium, and genitives and plurals in -i). Fuiuji should
be either fangai or fungi, Again, Bacillus should be bakilus, pi. bakili ; or
basilus, pi. basilusiz.

As against these objections, we have in New Zealand a decided
advantage over the Old Country if any attem])t be made to establish
a Continental Latin or Greek pronunciation. We all are familiar with
the Maori names at least, and are accustomed to pronounce long a and i
in something like the true Latin manner ; we mispronounce the Maori
shockingly, no doubt, especially in the stressing of the syllables, but we
have not to travel quite so far as a home-bred Englishman if we wish to
adopt a reasonable system. This alone, however, ca.n hardly be thought
to counterbalance all the difficulties already mentioned.

Supposing that, for the reasons above mentioned, or for others, it be
found impossible to establish any reformed Latin system, tlie question arises,
What is the alternative ?

There are two alternatives. One is to pronounce all the Latin and
Greek terms as English, in respect of both the value of the vowels and the
])osition of the stressed syllables. The other is a compromise.
Consider the two alternatives briefly.

(L) The average New Zealand student has learned Latin at school
and is familiar with that pronunciation which passes for " modern " and
with that only. If an '' English " scheme of pronunciation be adopted
lie must unlearn his Latin pronunciation, just as the average Englishman
must unlearn his " English " Latin if he is to be understood here. This
would seem fatal to any such system. It is certain that a homogeneous
and possibly defensible "■ English "" system could be used here, however,
as it is in England. There would be variations, inconsistencies of the
minor kind, and individual solecisms, no doubt, as there are in England ;
but such things will always be, whatever system be nominally " adopted."
And no doubt it would be a good thing if the farmer and the gardener could
be allowed to pronounce the Latin terms as they see them, supposing that
they know little or no Latin, and yet be in line with the university-bred
student or teacher of the subject ; they could then say " ostreilis " as
they say "■ ostreilie," and not be troubled by hearing others say " australis."
Yet no scientific man could, 1 think, bring himself to recommend the
adoption of the "English" or ''insular'" mode. Th^ case of the student
who has learned the " new " mode at school would alone block it ; no
such scheme could be scientifically defended; and this alternative is here
dismissed.

(2.) With regard to the other alternative : At first sight it would seem
that compromise is the only way, and it may prove that in s]iite of the best
endeavours of scientific men compromise will eventually win. The [)resent
chaotic " no system " may be gradually regularized and organized as
botanical students and teachers increase in numbers and as those from
different centres meet oftener and discuss their subject. And so also with
the terminology of science in general : the present comparative isolation
of the teachers and students in separate areas tends to encourage the
development of variations and local idiosyncrasies; but all that will ])a.ss.

414 Transactions.

Yet, again, the spirit of compromise is an alien in the world of science.
If we adopt a policy of laissez-faire and allow something to develop some-
how in the usual British manner of " muddle through and hope for the
best," then the ultimate result will have been partly at least determined
by unguided and unenlightened forces working more or less blindly (and
in this case deafly), and it will be an unscientific, inconsistent, and unsatis-
factory result, encouraging yet more inconsistency, and individual, capri-
cious variation ; it will be unstable, illogical, and absurd, and may yet
have, wc suppose, the sole merit of " pronouncability."

Conclusions.

1. In spite of the difficulties and apparently insuperable barriers with
which the practical carrying-out of such a scheme is beset, it is advisable
that an attempt be made to establish in New Zealand a uniform mode of
pronouncing all scientific terms of Latin and Greek origin upon the basis
of such a modern or reformed j^ronunciation as is used in the schools.

2. It is advisable that a committee of the New Zealand Institute be
set up to go into the details and draw up a logical, uniform, soientific
system of ]n'onunciation of scientific terms ; that the scheme when com-
plete should be adopted by the Institute ; and that every possible effort
should be made to introduce and explain it in all the University colleges
and all institutions where science (even elementary science) is taught, with
a view to establishing such uniformity as may prove possible.

3. In order to give practical effect to this idea it would be necessary
to draw up a fairly complete glossary of scientific terminology, and to
assign to each word a definite phonetic form indicating the sound of each
vowel and the incidence of the stress or stresses.

4. It is essential that all students intending to specialize in science
sliould learn Latin ; that in the teaching of Latin in the schools the pro-
nunciation should be made as uniform as possible ; and that the pupil
should be taught to accentuate the svllables of Latin words in as level a
manner as possible, and to break himself of the English habit of " prefer-
ential accentuation " (if such a term may be used). This is counsel of
perfection, and the writer of this paper knows only too well by long and
bitter experience how hard it is to induce British boys and girls to modify
in the least degree an}^ of those profoundly seated speech-instincts which
are a part of their heritage.

5. Even though such an attempt be foredoomed to failure, and even
thougli ultimately a compromise only can be attained (and this is much
to be feared), yet the attempt will undoubtedly have some effect for good
if only by giving such an advantage to the enlightened and organized
forces in the battle as may tend to make the inevitable compromise a better
thing — a thing nearer to the " scientific " than to the " popiilar " result.
It is to be hoped also that an attempt of this kind may tend to hasten
the arrival of the desirable end — i.e., uniformity of practice — even if that
practice be based upon no sound or logical theory. If any such effect
should hereby be produced this paper will not have been written in vain.

Williams. — Language of tht Chiilunn Inlands. 415

Art. XXXVI. — Some Notes on the Language of the Chalhaiu Islands.

By Archdeacon H. W. WilliAxMS.

[Read hfjorc the Xew Zmland histitute, <il Christchurch, dth-Stk February, lU lU ; received
by Editor, lllli March, 1919 ; issued separately, 19th August, 1919.]

Chatham Island, called by the Maori Wharekauri, and by the earlier
inhabitants Rekohii, was peopled by a branch of the Polynesian race
known variously as Maioriori, Mouriuri, and Mooriori (generally spelled
" Moriori ").* Accounts of the early history of the island and its inhabit-
ants are meagre in the extreme, toi (c. 1125), making for New Zealand
in search of his grandson Whatonga, is reported to have sighted an island
" like a cloud in the distance." It does not appear that he touched there,
and no further information has been preserved. On reaching New Zealand
Toi found portions of the North Islandf occupied by a people now referred
to as " Maruiwi," the name of a former chief. Trouble soon arose between
Toi's party and the Maruiwi, and a war of extermination was raged against
such of the latter as had not intermarried with the new-comers, and a small
remnant of them escaped in six canoes, sailing towards the south from Cook
Strait. It is said that some of these reached Chatham Island, but actual
proof of this fact is wanting. Moriori genealogies certainly contain the
names of Toi, his son and grandson, among the demigods, but a knowledge
of them may conceivably have come through another channel.

Some little time later (c. 1200) one Kahu, in a spirit of adventure, fitted
out a canoe at the mouth of the Rangitikei River and set out to find the
island reported by Toi. He reached Wharekauri, where he found inhabit-
ants who are supposed to have been the Maruiwi refugees from New
Zealand. But it must be borne in mind that the Moriori traditions claim
that their ancestors had resided on the island for many generations before
Kahu's arrival, a statement supported by notes to two Moriori genealogies
(Shand, pp. 53, 55) ; though it is difficult to assess accurately the chrono-
logical value of these genealogies, seeing that according to them 1,750
years intervened between Kahu's arrival and the coming of the Rangimata
canoe, a period which upon other data is estimated to be about 150 years.
The Moriori claim that his ancestors antedated Kahu by a considerable
period receives, perhaps, more support from the statement of Matorohanga
that four canoes are known to have reached Wharekauri from Rarotonga —
one of them, Te Ririno, " long before the visit of Kahu." The names of
two of the occupants of this canoe are given. One of them, Kapohau, had
a son, Te Ao-marama, a name which occurs in both the Moriori genealogies
as that of the father of Rongomai-whenua, who is stated to have been the
first ancestor who resided on the island. But this was, according to the
genealogies, some 128 generations before the beginning of this century —
say, about 1300 B.C., or fifty-five years before the siege of Troy.

Reverting to Kahu, it is said that he, with some of his companions, set
out to return to New Zealand, but nothing is known of their fate. Others
of the crew married on the island, and some of their descendants have since
returned here.

* This is probably not a tribal or race name, but, like the word " Maori," an
adjective meaning "native." Bishop Sehvyn, who visited the island in 1848, says that
they called themselves " tangata maoriori."

f Recent investigations indicate that this previous occupation probably covered
both the Islands of New Zealand.

416 Trcnisactions.

The Morioi'i traditions also inflation the arrival {c. 1350) of three canoes —
Rangimata, Rangihoua, and Oro])uke — from " Hawaiki," which we may
fairly assume to be Rarotonga.

Lastly, in 1835 a body of Taranaki Maoris occupied the island, com-
])letely dominating the Moriori inhabitants, many of whom they murdered,
while the survivors were reduced to a condition of slavery. Under this
treatment the Moriori dwindled rapidly. It is believed that at that date
there were about two thousand : Dieffenbach estimated their numbers at
ninety in 1840,* and Mr. Shand gave the number as twenty-five in 1898.

So far, then, as history is concerned, the inhabitants of the Chathams
would appear to have come from " Hawaiki "" (possibly Rarotonga) ; some
may have been Maruiwi from New Zealand : those who came with Kahu
were probably of mixed Maruiwi descent ; while all would be much influenced
by the later-arrived Maori tyrants.

Matorohanga has preserved some descrijDtive notes of the Maruiwi, which
conform in many respects with what is known of the Moriori. At the same
time, many of the characteristics recorded appear also in the descriptions
of the mixed dwellers on the island of Rangiatea, on which Whatonga was
cast away. But this fact is not very helpful, for though we may identify
Rangiatea with Raiatea, near Tahiti, we know nothing of the inhabitants
of that island eight hundred years ago, or of whence they came.

We may now turn to the language. For our knowledge of this we are
indebted almost entirely to the patient and sympathetic investigations of
the late Mr. Alexander Shand, who resided on the island for many years.
A vocabulary by Mr. Deighton (Apfendix to the Journals of the House of
Representatives, G.-5, 1889) contains equivalents for nearly nine hundred
English words. About sixty of his Moriori words are not recorded by Shand.

Mr. Shand collected a number of traditions and legends during the
years 1868-1869, when, as he says, " the old people could speak their own
language." The information thus obtained formed the basis of a series
of articles in the Journal of the Polynesian Society (vols. 3-7). f in which
Mr. Shand included original Moriori matter enough to fill about forty-four
pages of the Journal.

Moriori has been described as "" a corrupt subdialect of New Zealand
Maori " : and when the writer began work upon the recent edition of the
Maori Dictionary it was suggested that Mr. Shand should be invited to
contribute a list of Moriori words with a view to their incorporation in
the dictionarv. To this he readily agreed, and, though much hampered
by ill-health, he com])iled a vocabulary of some 2,500 words, many of
which are illustrated by examples. He completed the work in 1910, the
MS. reaching New Zealand by the mail immediately preceding that which
brought the news of his tragic death. With him, unfortunately, perished
a considerable amount of additional matter which he had hojied to
publish ; and we were de})rived of his help in elucidating cjuestions arising
out of the vocabulary he had compiled. An examination of the voca-
bulary forced the conclusion that the opinion making Moriori merely a
subdialect of Maori requires revision, and it was decided to hold it back
for independent publication.!

As a matter of fact, Moriori appears to be farther removed from Maori
than the dialects of many of the islands of the Pacific. Peculiarities of

* E. Dieffenbach, Journ. Boy. Geog. Soc, vol. 11, p. 207, 1841. Bishop Selwyn
took a car'eful census, and found 2t'>8, iiicludino; children.

j Tliese articles have been republished, and form vol. 2 of the Memoirs of the Poly-
nesian Society. References herein are to the pages of this volume.

f The copy is now almost ready for the press.

Wll-LIAMS. — Liui(/U(i(/( of tin (JJidlkdUL Is/a/u/s. 417

liotli grammar and vocabulary make the language more difficult for one
conversant with Maori to read than Earotongan, and not less so than that
of Tahiti, Uvea, or Nine.

Structurally the dialect is exceedingly plastic, and affords examples of
letter change in bewildering variety. In some cases the metamorphosed
word has wholly displaced the form with which we are familar in Maori ;
in others the Maori form is used concurrently with one or more variant
forms. This appearance of Maori forms may in some cases be a survival,
while in others it may be due to adoption from the speech of the more
recently arrived iMaori ov«>rlords.

In the matter of letter change we may, in comparing with Maori,* note
the occurrence of —

A for E : fj la (fe, art.), a (e, prep.), tikamafa {ti(kemata).
A for EI : ka (kei).
A for / .• k(( {ki, prep.).
A for O.-f lakato (takoto), kofau {koutoii).
A for OA : 7nana {moana).
A for U : oata [Jwatu). marl (muri).
AI for / .• hokai {hoki).

E for A:^ heu (hau), kei {kai), etu (atu), eriki {ariki), tinane (tinana),
E for / .■ nape (napi).

E for 0 : reimata {roimafd), tike (tikcj), mohetvao {mohowao), heme
, (hemo), konehi {kanohi).

E for U : aiu/e {akn).

E frequently inserted before H : ehan (kaa), eh? (hae), maehanga

{mUhanga), maehara {mahara). aeho {aho), poeho (poho) ; and

sometimes (as printed) after H : heanga (lianga) — but this last may

be only a case of the modified H, which will be dealt with below.

EI for A : eitil {atua).

I for A : puti (puta), eringi {erangi), iki (ika), mehori {mahora),

wihine (wahine).
I for E : mi {me, conj.), ti {fe, art.).
/ for 0 : rari {raro), korihiii {korohiti). tiri {tiro).
I for f/.-f tnatl {matil), likamata {tukemafa).
I inserted between two vowels : kaiore {kaore).
I inserted before or after H : piiha {puha), hiaka {haka) — but the

latter may be a case of modified H.
0 for A .'"f mahoro and mohoro {mahora), tokoto {takoto), thoTi {mUoa).
0 for E :^ to {te, art.).

0 for I : toki {tiki), tango {tavgi), pororo {porori).
0 for U :% tongo {tokv).
0 for OU : kotaa (koatou).

0 for UA:i akonei {akuanei), aoreka {ahuareka).
0 for WA : rao {raiva), manao {manawa).
0 for WE : tvao {ivawe), kao {kawe), makao {makawe).
U for A : »r' {ara)., hvnau {whanaa).
U for E : tn {te. art.), hanfi {whenna).
U for / .• t k)i {ki, ])re[).), huini {muri).
U for 0 : kanei {konei).
U for OA : mrin (maoa).

* The Maori form is given in brackets.

t Cases of this occur in some dialects of Maori.

J This occurs in Marcjuisan.

§ This occurs also in Rarotongan and Mangarevan.

14— Trans.

418 Transactions.

It will be noticed that in the case of many of these changes the vowel
appears to have been attracted, so to speak, to the vowel in the preceding
or following syllable (though in not a few instances the vowel change
has disturbed a previously existing symmetry), and the same rule may
be observed operating loosely in the choice of alternative forms in a
sentence : thus ku muru will generally be used for ki 'miiri, ko ru kupu and
hi ri kupu for ko ra kupu and ki ra kupu respectively (ru and ri representing
the article te), no ro me for no te mea. A good illustration occurs on
page 77 : Kite ko Tu i rari i ri papa o ro waka, Tu was found heneath
the flooring of the canoe. {In Maori, I kitea ko Tu i raro i te ])apa o te
waka.)

In addition to these changes a vowel is sometimes drojiped (i) before
a consonant, as na (ena), ha {aha) ; (ii) after a consonant, leaving a closed
syllable, as rangat {rangata), nawen {naivene), hok {Jioki), or {oro), mot
(motu)* ; I'n) after a vowel, in which case the preceding vowel is lengthened
by way of compensation, as ahe {ahea), me {mea), i {ia), and the passive
terminations M, rl, tl {Ma, ria, tia), ingo {ingoa), no {noa), aim {ahua),
ta {lae), marl {marie), ko (koe), en? {enei), ml {nni), re {reo) ; and (iv) before
a vowel, the remaining vowel, as in the last case, being lengthened, as
pe {fae), te {lae), weive {waewae), Jiere (haere), and, apparently, kci {koa).
Examples similar to the group (iv) occur in Tikopia, wher(> w^e find fe, ke,
me for foe, koe, moe.

In a number of words a vowel has become long where in Maori we have
a short vowel, as iht^, tihc, Ika, tciki, tird, apaajxi, tapoko. But I speak
with some difl&dence on this point, as I find that Mr. Shand has, in the
MS. in my hands, corrected the quantity in several passages quoted from
the articles which were printed some ten years previously. It is possible
that in reciting the legends a rhythmical diction may have been adopted
which placed on certain vowels a stress which did not accord W'ith that
of the normal pronunciation.

The consonants are not quite so pliable as the vowels, but still offer
no inconsiderable variety. In the cases of H, K, and T a peculiar method
of pronunciation is sometimes adopted, in which the tongue appears to
be somewhat arched into the palate and the letter uttered with a slight
emission of breath which not infrequently produces the effect of a suppressed
/, or sometimes E, sound before the proper vowel of the word. This
stressed pronunciation is used with K only when followed by A, possibly
only in the case of the particle ka ; wath H only when followed by A or
0 ; but with T it occurs much more frequently, and with any vowel
except 0. Mr. Shand represented this peculiarity of utterance variously
in the case of each of the letters named, using the combinations HHI,
HI, or HE for //; KH, KHI, or KKHI for K ; and TCH, TCHI, TCHE,
or TC for T. He states in a note that it is difficult to represent the
pronunciation in wanting, and mentions that it a})pears to be used in
some cases for the sake of emphasis. It is of interest to note that a
somewhat similar usage with respect to H was observed in the north of
New Zealand in the early days, and led the missionaries to write Shunghie
and Shanraki for Hongi and Hauraki. In Tonga, too, the method of
pronouncing T when followed by / leads to its being represented variously
by J or S.

* Ka is thus sometimes clipped to k\ and to to l\

Williams. — Language of the Chatham Islands. 419

As examples of change in consonants we niay note —

H for WH :* huti (whuti), hi [whi), hunu {whenua).

H dropped : f eke {heke), oeha (hoha), iki (hiki).

K for NG : ka (nga, art.). (No other cases noticed.)

K for T : ka and kl {te. ai't.), klhoiei (tihore).

M for W : hni {iivi), pakihinii (pakihiivi), niahine (ivahine).

M for K : mafahi {katahi).

N for R .-J manino (marino). (Uvean has naita, natou ; raua, ratou.)

NG for K : ngonei (konei).

P for A' .• harapepc (harakeke), tape (tuke).

P for M .•{ tupuaki (tumuaki).

R for N : J irokonei {inakuanei), hiringaro {hinengaro).

R for T : rika (fika). rangat {tangata), niptma {tupuna).

W inserted : wareiv {arero), arowaro {aroaro). This sometimes

indicates a U lost by substitution : hiivaki and hiiviki (huaki).

Aivainei for aianei involves more than the mere insertion of W.

A furtlier step in the transformation of words is taken in the dropping

of a complete syllable at tlie end of a word, as hi for Jiine or for hi nga,

ma for mate, mo for wot a.

The effect of these letter changes is to introduce a certain amount of
ambiguity in the interpretation of our texts; for, on the one hand, a
single form mav take on the functions of a number of others, while, on
the other, the same word may assume a multiplicity of shapes. Thus a,
which has seven distinct functions of its own, acquires in addition those
of ae, ana, ana, and e : e has three functions of its own and those also
of ae, he, hei, nge, and is said further to be inserted sometimes into a
sentence with no other purpose than that of euphony — a very refuge of
the destitute for a grammarian ; i has two uses of its own and represents
also ae, ai, e, he (sing, and pi.), hei, ia, ki, te (sing, and pL), and wai, and
also perhaps a euphonic use ; hi, besides its own duties, has those of he,
hia, hine, hinga, and whiwhi ; ka does duty for kahore. kei, koa, ki, nga,
and te, besides retaining two previous meanings. Conversely, the particle
atii appears also in the forms ati, etu, eti, whatu, wha, at, and et ;. ivhano
may become whani, hano, hana, or hane ; for the singular definite article
we have the choice of ta, t'a, te, t'e, t'ei. ti, t'i, to, tu, t' , ne, re, ri, ro, ni , i,
h'a, ka, ki, and ko, and three of these forms, i, ka, and ro, may also be
used in the plural.§

Metathesis is by no means uncommon in Maori and cognate languages,
but some examples in Moriori are interesting : euwha for ehua, pass, of
ehu, leads to eneuwha for ehuehua ; huanui appears as uwhanui, and
hiwiki (huaki) as hikui ; whine for wahine would certainly seem to connect
closely with tJie fine in Samoa, Tahiti, Tonga, &c., were it not paralleled
as a case of modified metathesis by the occurrence of kawhai for kahawai.

The last structural peculiarity remaining to be noticed is connected with
reduplication. It was noted in dealing with the interchange of vowels
that a principle of attraction seemed occasionally to be operating. In
not a few cases, however, of reduplicated words, a vowel in one element
of the word has been altered. Thus we have hinihina for hinahina, ateata
for ataata, okihakehaka for hokohakahaka, and iarehara for harahara. This
variation of vowels occurs very frequently in reduplicated words in Tongan.

* Cases of this occur sometimes in Maori.

t // is completely discarded by Whanganui and neighbouring tribes.

t This occurs in Marc£uisan.

§ The forms /' and h' are here used for the modified t and h referred to above.

l-l*

420 Transactions.

It is not very surprising to find that many words have in Moriori a
meaning differing in greater or less degree from that in Maori. We may
notice of few of these* : Anga, front, intestines (aspect) ; hua, keel of a
canoe (hand-spike, lever) ; kamo, beckon, wave to (wink) ; kopa. veer,
turn (bent, folded) ; ma puna, ripple, v. (well up) ; moteatea, shine (fearful,
apprehensive) ; ngoi, weak (strength) ; oti, death, as well as (in Maori)
finished ; jxio, open, a. (strike) ; ro, rofo has extended its meaning beyond
merely " the inside/' and we have such expressions as ko ro ta pari, " over
the cliff " ; ko ro to wai, " above the water " ; tango, work (take, attempt) ;
toke, small (out of sight, gone).

Of all the words recorded by Shand about 10 per cent, appear to be
from roots no longer preserved in Maori. It is possible that some of these
may, on further investigation, prove to be familiar roots disguised by some
of the letter changes discussed above.

Mr. Shand remarks that " The language . . . retains manv words
more peculiar to tlie Rarotongan dialect'"; but he unfortunatelv left no
list of these, f and I have only succeeded in noticing one. A study of
these non-Maori words reveals in the case of about 12 per cent, identity
or close approximation with words in one or more of the leading Polynesian
languages. Thus we have ha, sacred {sa, Sa., Uv.) ; maramara, nausea
{malamala, Sa., Ta.) ; puni, many (Marq.) ; tau, reef (Ta.) ; topa, fall
(E.I., Mang., Marq., Ta.) ; tohua, public place (Mang., Marq.) ; ivhariii,
turn ifariu, Ta.) ; pehe, sing (Ta. ; pese, Sa., Tik.). Among the approxi-
mations the more interesting are hakana, coffin (Marq., hide) ; murumuru,
singe (Fut., warm oneself) ; nono, taut (Nine, bind ; no, bind, Uv.) ; po,
troubled (Sa., have war) ; poi, leap (Niue, run ; Tik., go) : ro, go (Tik.,
oro, go) ; t'iei, not (Marq., tie ; Tik., sle ; Nuguria, teai ; Sikiana, seai) ;
tore, shoal, ridge (Sa., tolo, promontory) ; oko, many (Mang., Marq., strong ;
and apparently used to give a plural signification almost equivalent to
" many ") ; nuno, of no account (E.I., nunu, thin).

This would seem to be the place to notice the causative prefix. The
usual form is hoko, but this varies to hoka, hoke, hoki, hok, ho, oko, oka,
oke, oki, ok, and o. In some cases in the vocabulary Shand uses whaka ;
but this does not, I think, occur anywhere in the published narrative
matter, and appears to be an adoption due to Maori influence. This
inference is supported by the fact that under the head hoko Shand men-
tions whaka only as the Maori equivalent. The normal form hoko suggests
comparison with ho'o, ho, in Hawaiian, which seems to be the onlv other
language in which the vowel is normally o, though in a few Tongan words
(oko replaces faka.

In the affinities thus disclosed the Marquisan dialect figures most fre-
quently ; then follow those of Tahiti, Samoa, Hawaii, and Tikopia : Easter
Island, Mangarewa, Tonga, Uvea, and Futuna falling a little behind.
Rarotonga falls in the last group ; but it must be pointed out that the
opportunities for a comparison with this dialect were somewhat restricted ;
and, in any case, it is a mistake to stress heavily numerical values in a
comparison of this nature, particularly when the numbers are small and
the available vocabularies far from complete. J

* The meaning of the word in Maori is given in brackets,
t One, which he mentions in a note, is open to donbt.

X Mr. Best gives (Trans. X.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 435-36) thirteen Maiuiwi words, of
which one, kohi, appears in j\Ioriori with a sligJit modification in sense, kasfev for co7ne..

Williams. — Language of the Chatham Islands. 421

It now remains to noticf a few of the grammatical peculiarities of this
language. With the limited material in our hands it is not possible to
formulate a complete scheme of the grammar ; but we are much helped
by the fact that Mr. Shand has given a careful, and often literal, trans-
lation of what he piiblished. Where he w'as unable to translate he had to
content himself with the sense of the passage as obtained from the narrators.
There is a tendency to clip sentences by the omission of —

(i.) The definite article, as — No / taenga ki / tuatoru k"akina i tao
o Whakatau, When it came to the third time Whalmtaif s spear
ivas thrust foncard (80); Ka oti/tarei. The adzing toas
finished (3.5) ; Pena mai i titike o / tupapaku, ti te hope to
hohonu o / toto tangat, Such was the heap of the corpses that
the depth of human blood reached to the loins (98) ; Ko roto i
ri pu hamama o /totara, In the gaping trunk of a totara (97).
(ii.) A verbal particle, as — / Ru manga a Kura, / torn manga a
Kura, Kara took two moidhfuls, Kura took three mouthfuls (41) ;
E kore / te, He will not get there; Ko maru/horo, Maru
sivallowed it (63).
(iii.) A preposition, as — Ka ra waihe i / wahine mana, She became

a wife for him (65).
(iv.) The nominal ])article, a, as — Ka whai mai / Nunuku, Nunuku
replied (132).
The distinction between the active and passive of verbs is not always
clearly preserved, and the preposition e, which in Maori indicates the agent
after a passive verb, is in Moriori used with either an active or a passive :
Potehi etu e Maui, It was discovered by Maui (29) ; Te potehiti mai ko e o
hunau, Lest you be discovered by your relatives (35).

Similarly, what may be called the transitive prcjiosition i is inserted
also after intransitive or passive verbs : Ka tak i te ran, The feather fell (63) ;
Ka hapa i te hei. There was one necklet over (77) ; Ka pan i te hunu o tana
kei i a Rohe, Part of his food was consumed by Rohe (29) ; Ti reira pea
i te kiato o ta imi, Perhaps the bulk of the people were there (132) : A te
huna e ratau i te rangat o ratau, They were hiding one of their number (77).
This usage may perhaps explain away the supposed euphonic use of i
mentioned by Shand.

The use of the particle e after personal jironouns and some adverbs is
more frequent than that of its Maori equivalent nge, and may reduce
slightly the number of cases of the euphonic use of the letter.

In the narratives as edited \\\o definitive particle, ko, is iLsed with the
subject to a verb more freely than in Maori : Ka puta ko Kura i f ata,
Kura went out in the morning (42). But in many apparent cases of this
use it is preferable to regard the ko as another form of the definite article,
though it is not so recorded by Shand : Ka ki mai ko tu))una ki a i, His
grandfather said to him (129).

The pronoun ena, those (near the person addressed), is used adjectivelv
with the signification other : Ki te hunga ena ko Tamahine matua. With
other people {she was known as) the senior daughter (76) ; K' huihui mai ko
Te Wheteina me na ka imi. There assembled the Wheteina and the other
tribes (94). An additional indefinite pronoun, a, is used to obviate the repe-
tition of a noun, somewhat as nga mea would be used in Maori : Kimi
mei ki ka rakau, i a tika. Fetch some poles, let them be straight ones (40).

The expression " hunaunga no ko," a relative of thine, which occurs
more than once, is peculiar ; but we are unfortunately not in a position

422 Transactions.

to say whether this use of the personal ])ronoun in place of the pronominal
suffix had a wider currency. Another anomalous use occurs in the phrase
" ta imi na ratou e kai,"' the people who ate him (132). The Maori idiom
would be " nana i kai."

A curious inverted construction is found occasionally in which the direct
object of the sentence is treated as if it were the indirect object : Ko ta
imi t'iei haramai i tangat, ka pang etu ki ri ngakau, As for the tribes from
ivhich no men went with him, he threw them the entrails (SO) ; Ri oro mai au
nei ki t' opeope, He threw me a scrap.

The phrase " no ro me," because (Maori, " no te mea ""). takes also the
peculiar form-s " ka ro a me " and '' ka ra wa me," which it is difficult
to explain grammatically. A similar difficulty is raised by the sentence
" E me wa me meheki naku " (132). Bhand's translation, They are things
belonging to me, no doubt gives the sense, but fails to explain the syntax.

The points reviewed in this paper do not, in the opinion of the writer,
make for any s])ecial theory as to the identity or origin of the Moriori race.
In fact, it is well that we were pledged to no theory, for it seems that the
only conclusion we have succeeded in establishing is the entirely negative
one that the Moriori tongue is not correctly described as "a subdialect
of New Zealand Maori." So far from that being the case, it has as nuich
right to be considered indejjendent as any of the known dialects of the
Polynesian language.

Art. XXX VII. ^ — Report on the Natural Features of the Arthur's Pass

Tunnel.

By a Committee of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury : C. C. Farr,
E. G. Hogg, S. Page, L. J. Wild, and F. W. Hilgexdorf (Convener).

[Read before the N etc Zealand Institute, at Christckurch, 4th-<Sth Februanj, 1919; received
by Editor, 21st May, 1919 : issued separately, 19th Auyust, 1919.]

In 1907, when the railway-tunnel from Otira to Arthur's Pass was about
to be commenced, the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury arranged to
make a series of records of the phenomena of natural and physical science
that were revealed by the piercing of the tunnel.

It was designed to pay special attention to (1) the rock-formation
exposed by the section ; (2) the temperature of the rock in the bore as
compared with that of the rock on the surface ; and (3) the radio-activity
of the rock in the tunnel (to determine whether the temperature gradient
in the earth's crust and the radio-activity of the rocks were related in any
measureable degree).

The tunnel was to be about 5 miles 25 chains in length ; to penetrate
the main chain of the Southern Alps from near the headwaters of the
Otira, which flows into the Taramakau, to near those of the Bealey, which
flows into the Waimakariri ; to be in a straight line from portal to portal ;
and to rise with an even gradient of 1 in 33 from the Otira end.

A Tunnel Committee was appointed by the Council of the Institute,
a series of suitable slow-acting thermometers and other apparatus were
obtained, and satisfactory arrangements were niade with the contractors

HiLGENDORF. — X(//iin// Fcafiires of Arthur's Pass Tunnel. 123

for the boring of the holes into the rock for the temperature observations —
arranoenients that were continued when the work was taken over by the
Public Works Department. It was desirable that the temperature bores
should be as close to the working face as possible, so as to prevent the
cooling of the rock by the air of the tunnel, and so it was arranged that
the bores should be put in 4 ft. behind the working face of the bottom
heading, that they should be 5 ft. deep and 1 in. in diameter, sloping
slightly u])wards to prevent the accumulation of water in them, and lightly
I)lugged with tow to prevent the circulation of air. For ease of rediscovery
they were for most of the distance put in every 10 chains, at a height of
4 ft. from the floor, and on the east side of the tunnel. Different members
of the Committee visited the tunnel at various intervals, either to make
the observations or to note their progress in the hands of those to whom
they were deputed. The tunnel is not yet completed, but, as the bottom
headings have met, it is considered that no new phenomena are likely to
be disclosed. The results of the observations are almost entirely negative.

Rock Structure.

The course of the tunnel is entirely through rocks of the Maitai system.
Its direction makes a small angle with the axis of an anticline, and
therefore little can be learned of the order of occurrence of the various
beds. There are the usual variations from coarse-grained light-coloured
to fine-grained dark-coloured beds, and through these run irregular veins
of Cjuartz and occasionally of calcite. Some of the rocks, particularly
those of the fine-grained type, are distinctly carbonaceous, and are found
to contain in places nests and lenticular masses of impure graphite. All
the rocks are somewhat calcareous, and contain in one or two places
nodular concretions about the size of a hen's egg. A record of the dip
and strike of the veins running through the country rock was kept for some
miles from the Otira end, and this record is in the hands of the Public
Works Department.

Owing to the rocks ex]>osed being in the axis of an anticline they are
frequently faulted, and are broken and shattered to a high degree. This
has had an imj)ortant effect on the permeability of the mass to water, as
will be noted immediately.

A complete series of specimens of the rocks obtained throiigh the tunnel
has been prepared for preservation in the Canterbury Museum.

Inflow of Water.

The shattered nature of the rock allowed the ingress of much water,
and every time a blast opened up a wet seam streams of water would pour
down on the workmen, greatly retarding the progress of the tunnel. When
the bore was in 5 chains from the Otira end the influx of water was 0-1 cubic
f'»ot per second. The ]:)laces where the water came in worst were from 10 to
40 chains apart, and these usually occurred where the rock was crushed
and broken. In certain places the rock, shattered to pieces the size of a
walnut, flowed in with the water, opening up great seams that required
inuch timbering. The occurrence of the wet seams was most capricious.
For instance, on one occasion the bottom heading opened up quite dry,
but when the tunnel was enlarged to its full size a bad inflow of water was
struck. There was no relation between the amount of rock overhead and

424 Transactions.

the inflow of water, one of the worst flows being met with where the over-
burden was 900 ft. of rock. The course of the tunnel followed very nearh-
the courses of the Otira and Bealey Rivers, and several times passed under
these or their larger tributaries, but there was no relation between the
influx of water and the position of the tunnel in respect to these rivers.
As a general rule the entering stream dried up considerably in a few weeks
or months, but this was not always the case. The remaining flows, with
the smaller drips that are practically continuous throughout the length of
the tunnel, now produce a considerable stream, discharging 7 cubic feet
per second. As the concrete lining is placed in position the water is
confined behind the lining, which is pierced with weep-holes at sufficient
intervals.

The concrete lining consists of a solid mass up the walls, but the arch
is formed of concrete blocks. Between these very small drips occur, and
the dripping water, having dissolved in it some of the materials of the
concrete, has on evaporation formed stalactites, which are very noticeable
objects as they hang from the roof. Their composition is essentially
CaCOg, with traces of Fe, Al, organic matter, and NHg, the last probably
from the organic matter. There is no Mg, PO^, or SO^. The stalactites
are about 1 ft. long, and about \ in. in diameter. They look solid as they
hang, but when broken from the roof are so fragile that they can hardly
be held in the hand without breaking, for they have a large hollow down
the centre, the solid matter forming the thinnest possible shell. Their
rate of growth has been about 2 in. per annum, which is probably a
hundred times as fast as stalactites grow in a limestone cave. The
difterence is due to the fact that in the case of the tunnel it is the
soluble calcium hydrate that the water has had to work on, instead of
the relatively insoluble calcium carbonate. It is probable that the rate
of growth may be temporarily increased by the through draught caused
by the opening of the bore from end to end, although the draught is
neither so considerable nor so constant as might be expected considering
that the tunnel is a mathematically straight line and is 860 ft. higher at
one end than at the other. The draught is usually upward, but sometimes
is qiiite absent and sometimes flows downward toward Otira.

Rock Temperatures.

When the tunnel was started it was designed to take at each of many
places three simultaneous observations as follows : — (1) The rock temperature
in the tunnel ; (2) the rock temperature at the nearest surface above the
temperature-hole in the tunnel ; (3) the radio-activity of the rock exposed in
the tunnel. By this means it was hoped to contribute to our knowledge of
whether, and to what extent, the internal heat of the earth is due to radium
emanations as distinct from its residual heat. The conditions were, how-
ever, most unfavourable. In the first place, though the tunnel pierces a
great mountain-chain, it passes under a low saddle, so that the overburden
of rock is at its maximum only 1,100 ft. If the tunnel had been two miles
east or west of its actual position the overburden would have been increased
to 4,000 ft. or 5,000 ft. In the second place, the great influx of water made
it quite clear that the observations would give the temperature not of
the rock, but only of the percolating water. Of the temperature-holes
bored half were distinctly wet, while the others were so near to wet places
that the rock and the thermometer were undoubtedlv affected bv the water.

HiLGENDORF. — ?i'</furtf? F ft/f 1/ /•<.■< ijf Art/iur's I'ass Tunnel, 425

w^

Vc

1

J.

1

r

5

i

-5

\

\

1

\

/

E

\

\
\
\
\

\
\

\
\

i

\ J

\

1

\

C *^

\

to m

\

j; <*.

\

\

1 o

\

\

tT U3

IS —

,

I \ ■

,

1

o

\

^ ^ M

\

i/>

^

\

<u

E E

!"

j<

u

o o

/

\

\

10

O

f

^

\

\

1

c

\

\
\

\

1

5 _

E n:

o

\

\

\

o o

\

\

\

\

N ^

(J

\

\

s- ■-

^

^

\

\

X >

in
o

/

\ 1

\

\

(

:

V

-\-

\

I

\i

\

\ 1

\ '<

\
\

\

/

j

V 1

\ i

\
\
\

\

\

Lf)

\
\

\

\

\

/

c

\

\

o

\

\°

■'"-- \ 1

\

)

^

\

\

<■

:

'"■ \

\

^•'

r>. o

\

\

•^v^ tC

. . '

\

^""-^ <^

,- 1 ^

»

\

\

1 *

o
o

.^

' --— ,.

»

\ ,._

\

\

'

\

\

■ ■:.■-----

I

^. .----'

u-\

O

^»-"''

(-"

\

\

-^ ■=.

\ •.,

V

->\

CN

^\ 'X'

V *K

\

ui\

\ cil

\

\

A

\oO

\

\

\

•t\

) i

'

I

\

'^\

^

^

Ci

\

\'\

<r-^

^

d'.

\

1 \

<

\

\

S-

y

^ ■..

\

1 \

\

o

/

'-.

\

c

/

\

\

-

6

,''.

C!

\

\

-(

o

\
\

! 1 \

f-

o

-

- — ^

^-J

\

O

->■

\

\

1 \

c

;^

^

\

s

\

>

1 ■ I

1

-— -A— ■

J

\

\

o

1 *

<■

\^

1

\

\

j:i

1

i

1

\

\

r:

; !

c

\

\

i/>

->^

\

:\

I ■

1

aC

'

'CJI

<a ^^v.

-'

\

\
\

\ ^^

xl

1

^- '

;^--^

^

o

V
\

1

^^."^-4.

o

\

1

1

\

1

\
\

'-A

\
1 ).

4i"

\
\

{-■'-

^r.,^

-\^

z

ni

z;

!-l

■^

cS

■-1

-y

dJ

T'

CL,

-T<

fl

2h

n

4^

r.

^

u

fl

W

"^

H

Tl

ci

CD

^T^

- c3

y: o

«

426 Transactions.

The accompanying graph gives the rock-temperature for three miles and a
half from the Otira end, the observations being taken every 5 chains for the
first 45 chains, and thereafter every 10 chains. No readings were taken at
tlie Bealey end. Since it was desired to correlate the temperature-readings
with the overburden of rock, the basal temperature line (9° C.) on the
graph has been given the same slope as the tunnel-floor. It will be noted
that the temperature graph is roughly parallel to this basal line, and that
the minor variations in it, amounting to 3° or 4° C, show no sign of
parallelism with the overburden of rock. The capricious variations shown
are due chiefly, if not entirely, to the rate at which the water near by
percolated from the surface or from the seams in which it was lying. That
some heating effect was produced by the passage of this water through
the rocks is, however, apparent from the fact that the average temperature
of the wet rocks in the tunnel is about 10° C, while the water in the
surface streams is about 45° C.

Temperatures were read twelve, twenty-four, and forty-eight hours
after the insertion of the thermometer, but in only four out of the thirty-
five holes put in was there any difference among the three readings of
the same hole. The greatest variation shown was at the hole at 1 mile
55 chains, where the readings were 13°, 12-9°, and 12-8° C.

Biology.

The only observation of biological interest was the growth of the fungus
known as Armillaria mellea on the temporary timbering of the tunnel,
where it formed great pendulous bunches of mycelia about 3 ft. long, and
somewhat similar in size and appearance to a horse's tail except that the
individual strands were coarser. Only the vegetative form of the fungus
was found, and this was found only on the jjine timbers of the Otira end,
being absent from the eucalyptus props of the Bealey end. Probably the
fungus occurs in the bush whence the timber was cut and the spores are
carried in when the props are placed in jjosition, where the equable
temperature, the moisture, and the darkness provide suitable conditions
for vigorous growth. The estimated minimum rate of growth is about
3 ft. in a year, but this has been noticeably altered by the completion
of the bore, the constant aeration having produced greatly accelerated
development.

The Committee wishes to express its sincere thanks to the Right Hon.
Sir Joseph Ward, who, as Prime Minister, made a grant in aid of the
expenses of the investigation ; to the Hon. G. W. Russell for permission
to publish the report in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute ; to
Messrs. McLean Bros, (the original contractors for the tunnel) and to the
Public Works Department for facilities for making the observations recorded ;
and especially to Mr. A. Dinnie, Engineer in Charge, for his unfailing
courtesy and willing assistance, and to Mr. Manson, underground foreman,
for making most of the temperature observations.

Herriott. — lliafory of llngh'n Park. 427

Art. XXXVIII. — A History of Hagley Park, Chrislchurch, ivith

Special Reference to its Botany.

By Miss E. M. Herriott, M.A., Biological Laboratory, Canterbury College.

[Bead brfore the New Zealand Institute, at Christrhurrh, Ith^Sth February, IVHJ ;
received by Editor, 7th April, 1919 ; issued separately, 19th Aucjust, 1919 ]

Contents.

Page
Introductiou - - - • • • • • . . 427

Size and BoundarioH of the Park . .

Early Histor^y

History of the J)otiiaiii

The Historic Trees of the Domain

Buildings in tlie Domain
History of the Park
The Soil of Hagley Park
The Plant t'overinsz

Introduction.

428
429
431
433
43.0
435
437
43S

Those wbo gain the sumniit of the Port Hills by means of the Bridle-path
and look across the Canterbury Plains as they appear to-day can have little
idea of the appearance they presented to the first Europeans who gazed
upon them from a similar vantage-point in the " forties " of last century.
They then spread out in a wide stretch of flat country " clothed with
abundance of good pasture, singularly deficient in timber."* Isolated
patches of forest were to be seen at Riccarton, Papanui, Kaiapoi, and
Rangiora. The Papanui Bush has long since, disappeared, but the Riccar-
ton Bush still stands, solitary remnant of the famous white-pine {Podocarpus
dacrndioides) association, the site of the future city was more or less a
swamp, interrupted in various parts by shingle-beds and sand-dunes,
through which the little river Avon, then variously known as Teonotopo or
Potoringamotu, wound its way amidst a thick growth of Phormium, nigger-
heads, and raupo.

The first permanent settlers on the Plains were the Deans brothers,
who arrived in 1842 and decided to settle just on the fringe of the now
well-known Riccarton Bush. An account of their first journey gives some
idea of the general appearance of the early vegetation covering this district.
The journey was made up the river from its mouth in a whaleboat as far
as " The Bricks," near the present Barbadoes Street Bridge. From that
point a Maori canoe conveyed the party to the bend in the river close to
the present Riccarton Road. During the whole river journey the canoe
had to be forced through a thick growth of vegetation by pulling on the
flax and niggerheads. When the little party left the river a path had to be
made through the dense " entanglement of fern, tutu, tussock, bramble,
Spaniards, and other native growth, nearly breast-high. "f Such was the
virgin state of the land on which the new city was to be built.

* Handbook for Ncir Zealand, by a late Magistrate, p. 326, 1848.
t Canterbury Old and New, p. 50, 1900.

428 Transactions.

The Canterbury Association had instructed their surveyors to choose as
the site of the capital of their settlement a suitable block of land about
1,000 acres in area, and to lay out lines for thf principal streets, squares,
sites of public buildings, parks, &c., required for the convenience of the
future inhabitants.* After some hesitation as to the respective merits of
the seaj)ort and the inland site the latter was selected One of the
surveyors protested that the actual site chosen was too swampy, and
considered the place on which the suburb of Woolston now stands to be
drier and therefore a more desirable situation. He was overruled, how-
ever, by his more impetuous colleague. Captain Thomas, and the principal
streets, squares, reserves, &c., were laid out as they now stand. As it was
to be an ecclesiastical settlement, the principal streets were named after
various bishoprics, the names being jumbled up together in a hat and
drawn at random as required, so that no undue preference should be given.
In this way did the main thoroughfares receive their names. With the
large town reserve, however, it was different. This was named out of
compUment to Lord Lyttelton, who was chairman of the Canterburv
Association, and Hagiey Park bears the name of his country seat in
Staffordshire.

Size and Boundaries of the Park.

Out of the 1,000 acres an area approximating 500 acres was set aside,
vested in the Queen, as a public park. In accordance with the request
of the Deans brother^ that the new town should not be placed too near
their station, this reserve was placed on the west side of the town, between
their station and the town buildings. Koughly speaking, it comprised all
the land from tlie North Town Belt to the South Town Belt for a width
of 60 chains. By the Canterbury Association Ordinance of 1855 the land
known as Hagiey Park was declared to be reserved for ever as a public
park, and to be open for the recreation and enjoyment of the public ; and
it was provided that it should be lawful for the Superintendent to set apart
so much of the land as he should think fit for plantations, gardens, and
places for public amusement, and to lay out public roads through it. He
had power also to let it.

The original reserve includes the grounds now occupied by the Hospital,
the Acclimatization Society, and Christ's College. By the year 1855 the
10 acres belonging to Christ's College had already been handed over to the
College authorities in exchange for land owned by the College in the centre
of Cathedral Square, and it is so specified in the Canterbury Association
Ordinance referred to above. In 1863 the Provincial Council by an Ordinance
transferred 5 acres 2 roods of the park to the Sui^erintendent for the purpose
of a hospital, this being the higher land at the corner of Antigua Street and
Riccarton Road. By the Christchurch Hospital Act of 1887 this land and
nearly 8 acres more were vested in the North Canterbury Hospital Board
ill fee-simple, the extra 8 acres being for the purpose of a fever ward, kitchen-
garden, and pleasure-grounds, it being especially stipulated that no buildings
were to be erected there without the consent of the Domain Board.

Although strictly speaking the original reserve includes this whole area,
in this paper only those parts of it now known as " Hagiey Park " and the
" Botanic Gardens " are dealt with botanically. Hagiey Park is divided

* Handbook- for New Zealand, p. 19.

Hehhiott. — History of Ilagltij tark. 429

into North and South Parks, which are separated by Riccarton Road.
The North Park is bounded on the south by Riccarton Road, on the west
by the W<'st Belt, on the north and <>ast by the River Avon. A small
plantation, known as Hehnore's Plantation, is cut off on the north of
North Park by a public road. The South Park is bounded by the
South Belt, the West Belt, Riccarton Road, and Lincoln Road. In the
same block of land as the North Park are the Botanic Gardens. On the
north these are bounded by a straight line running at right angles to
RoUeston Avenue along the College boundary-fence as far as the river,
thence by the river itself to the south end of Rolleston Avenue again.

The exact areas of these various portions are rather difficult to determine
from the records. In the Lyttelion Times of the 20th April, 1852, the Land
Office of that day advertises the 445 acres of Hagley Park as available for
depasturing, at a rental of 2s. 7d. per acre. The Govei'nment Domain, of
64| acres, is also advertised, at a rental of 4s. 7d. per acre. Whether this
Government Domain is part of the original reserve and is the area now
occupied by the Botanic Gardens is not quite certain, but, assuming that
it is, the total area of the reserve as surveyed in those days would be
509|^ acres. This is greater than any later estimate. By the Public
Domains Act, 1895, the area of Hagley Park and Domain is described as
originally 495 acres This includes the 10 acres vested in the Christ's
College authorities, the Hospital ground, and also the areas occupied by
the roads through the Park, altogether 35 acres, leaving under the direct
control of the Domain Board 460 acres. In 1905 the North Park was
surveyed by Mr. N. C. Staveley, of the Canterbury College Physics Depart-
ment, and in 1906 the South Park by students of the Engineering Scliool,
under Mr. W. F. Robinson, and the areas were computed as follows : North
Park, 210 acres ; South Park, 174 acres 1 rood 4 poles : total, 384 acres
1 rood 4 poles. The accompanying table shows the latest areas recorded
for each division of the original reserve : —

^&"

A.

E. P.

. . 210

0 0

174

1 4

10

0 0

1

0 26

0

2 13

51

1 38

13

2 18

10

0 0

North Park

South Park

Christ's College . .

Museum

Magnetic Observatory

Domain Garden

Hospital

Acclimatization Society . .

Total . . . . 471 0 19

Subtracting from this total the areas handed over to Christ's College and
to the Hospital Board, a total of 447 acres 2 roods 1 pole is left under the
control of the Domain Board, thus making a shortage of 22 acres 1 rood
39 poles from the estimated 460 acres of 1895.

Early History.

The administration of the land of the public reserves was at first in the
hands of the Land Office. The earliest reference found was in the LytteJfon
Times of the 3rd April, 1852, where, over Mr. W. G. Brittan's signature,
was the advertisement for receiving tenders to depasture " the land known
as the Town Reserve surrounding Christchurch, Hagley Park, and the

430 Transactions.

Crovernment Domain." The Town Reserve and the Government Domain
here referred to were later disposed of in other ways, but Hagley Park still
remains. In the same issue of the Lyttelton Times was an account of a
cricket match in Hagley Park between the married and the single men of
the settlement. A subscription was taken up during the afternoon to make
a proper ground and fence it in, " the present place being rough in the
extreme and very difficult to play on." A sum of £30 was collected, which
was presumably spent in this way. In a later issue was an advertisement of
races to be held in Hagley Park on Easter Monday of the same year. This
was accompanied by the statement that the course had been much improved
since the last races held there. Again, on the 25th December, 1852, apjjears
an account of the "farewell breakfast" tendered to Mr. and Mrs. Godley
on the eve of their departure for England. This took place in Hagley
Park in the spacious marquee which had been erected for the Horticultural
Exhibition, of which no other mention can be found.

It would seem, therefore, that the Park was early used for one of the
])urposes for which it had been set aside — namely, as a recreation-ground
for the townspeople ; and to a certain extent the ground must have been
prepared for this, cleared of some at least of the thick growth with which
it had been covered when the town was first laid out. Details, however,
as to this are lacking. Stock of all kinds were freely pastured on this
ground, for the action of the Association in charging for the right to
pasture on Hagley Park provoked the complaint from one correspondent
that the price of milk was high enough as it was without any extra charge
in consequence of rents dairymen had to pay. Later on the long grass
was cut, and haystacks were a common feature in the parks.

In 1855, by the Canterbury Association Ordinance before referred to,
the Superintendent was given power to set aside what land he thought fit
for plantations, gardens, &c., but nothing seems to have been done in this
direction before 1864. On the 10th May, 1864, a public meeting was held
in the Town Hall for the purpose of forming the Canterbury Horticultural
and Acclimatization Society, and it was decided that Hagley Park was a
suitable site on which to form a botanic garden. The Provincial Govern-
ment was approached, and a Commission, consisting of Messrs. Hall,
Sewell, Miles, and Hill, was appointed " to promote the cultivation and
planting of the Government Domain in connection with the objects of the
Acclimatization Society."

In early days the Commission (later known as the Board) acted as
an advisory committee to the Superintendent, but in 1872 the power of
administration was vested in the Board itself. The various Acts of 1872,
1881, 1895, 1908, and 1911 have all dealt with the administration of this
Christchurch reserve, and have further defined the extent of tlie Board's
authority over the land.

At the first meeting of the Commission it was unanimously agreed that
the ground under control of the Commission should be trenched and
])lanted without delay. The Government Gardener, Mr. Barker, under-
took the supervision of the work for the Commission. The portion of the
reserve decided on as suitable for acclimatization and horticultural pur-
poses was that lying between Christ's College grounds and the river, and
steps were taken to have this fenced off with Van Diemen's Land palings,
trenched and dug, w^hile the Provincial Secretary was requested to have
the cattle removed which were then depasturing the ground. Due attention
was paid to the requirements of the Acclimatization Society as to aviaries

\ Herriott. — Hisfnri/ of Hagley Park. 431

and ground fo'i pasturing any animals. Native plants were offered by a
gardener at Akavoa at the rate of 6s. to 14s. per hundred, and £30 was
voted to be disbursed in the purchase of the same. Dr. von Haast pre-
sented seeds he had received from Sir W. J. Hooker, Director of the Kew
Gardens, and other private individuals made presents of seeds and ])lants.

A vote of £1,000 had been granted by the Provincial Government for
the carrying-out of the work, and at the outset the finances appeared to
be in good condition.

Frequent gaps occur in the minutes of the first few years. In 1867,
however, it is recorded that Mr. Barker asked to be relieved of his duties
as Government Gardener, and the late Mr. J. F. Armstrong was elected
as his successor. Mr. Armstrong acted as curator till 1889, and during the
greater part of his twenty-two years' service he was assisted by his son,
Mr. J. B. Armstrong, who had charge of the nursery work.

History of the Domain.

The Domain when Mr. J. F. Armstrong took over the management
presented a very different appearance from that of to-day with its trim,
orderly beds and wide green lawns. A paling fence separated it from
Antigua Street, and close to it was a very thick belt of willows and poplars.
Over a hundred were taken out from the frontage between Worcester and
Hereford Streets. The Museum building and the Gardener's cottage had
not then been erected. Three sand-dunes were very conspicuous, one
occupying the site of the present Museum, a large one where the first
grove of pines {Pinus Pinaster) now stands, and a smaller one between
these two. Those behind the Museum have since been levelled, but the
knoll on which the pines stand still shows something of its original form.
All these sand-dunes were covered with fern, amongst which showed an
occasional Discaria. A huge shingle-pit occupied the greater part of the
area now covered by the wide front lawn, and supplied much of the metal
for the city streets. There were no flower-beds of any kind. A few of
the older trees were there then ; the tall Eucalyptus on the river-side near
the Gardener's cottage was one of these, and the Prince of Wales's oak
farther down the path.

It may be of interest to note that the oldest of the trees planted in
the Domain and Park, such as the sycamores, oaks, and elms, were imported
from England as trees. They came out in big wooden cases, having been
removed from the English nurseries during the resting season. On arrival
after their six months' journey they were at once put into the river to
revive before planting. The stronger of them lived, and grew when planted
out, but many died. As soon as it was possible all trees for planting in
the Domain were raised in the nursery of the Domain either from seed or
from cuttings or layerings. This work, as mentioned above, was in the
charge of Mr. J. B. Armstrong, and trees of his raising may be found in
all parts of the Park and Gardens. The line of wellingtonias extending
from the river to Riccarton Road by the United Tennis and Bowling Club's
grounds were all raised from seed in 1873. The beautiful Oriental planes
in the avenue leading to Riccarton Road were reared as cuttings, and the
limes of the South Park as layerings, in 1873 and 1874. In addition to
the work of raising seedlings and trees for the Domain and Park, thousands
of young trees were distributed from the Christchurch Gardens to various
public bodies in all parts of the colony. In 1881 it was estimated that the
number that had thus been gratuitously distributed by the Domain Board

432 Transactions.

during the previous twelve years was 694,972. Later tliis work had to
be discontinued owing to lack of funds.

During the years following 1867 many trees were pLinted both in the
Domain and Parks ; flower-beds and lawns were formed in the Domain,
and the main paths laid down as they now are. This entailed much hard
work, for the whole area was practically uncultivated. The bed just inside
the gates which is now so gay with flowers was a deep bed of shingle, all
of which had to be removed and replaced by good soil. Tlie College
border was amongst those formed, and still contains many trees and shrubs
planted at that time ; the River border was also formed about the same
time, and the Fern border also was prepared for the reception of tree-ferns.
A number of these are still to be found there in company with a tangled
mass of other native and foreign vegetation, and the whole, as it stands,
somewhat resembles a piece of native bush, where the young seedlings
of the various trees find a congenial home.

The names of Mr. J. F. Armstrong and of his son will be always con-
nected especially witli that j)ortion of the Gardens now known as the " old
native section." About 1875 Mr. J. F. Armstrong proposed to lay out
the 2 acres hitherto used as a nursery for the cultivation of the New
Zealand trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, for, as he said, "■ there are
in the colony many beautiful and interesting plants, which it is desirable
to preserve from the destruction which is fast overtaking the indigenous
flora." He proposed to plant the species in hand in botanical order, and
fill up as others should be obtained. A very large collection of valuable
plants was brought together here, many of them being collected from their
native homes by the son, who took long and arduous journeys for that
purpose.

Much of the history of this native section was given many years later
by Dr. L. Cockayne in an article entitled " The Native Section, its Value
and Possibilities," published in the Lyttelton Times of the 12th June. 1911.
Dr. Cockayne stated that the function of a native section such as that
formed by the Armstrongs was " to form a living museum of botanic
material which students could consult ; to be a pleasing adjunct to the
Gardens ; to show that native plants could be cultivated, and were equal
to expensive exotics ; and, finally, to supply seeds for exchange purposes
with horticultural establishments abroad. And right well has it served
those purposes." " Through the material collected in this way," the article
continues, " Mr. J. B. Armstrong sprang into the front rank of New
Zealand botanists by his bold and excellent paper on the New Zealand
veronicas, in which he foreshadowed De Vries's mutation theory." Material
from this section has been extensively used by Cheeseman, Petrie, and
Cockayne, among New Zealand botanists ; while seeds collected here have
been sent abroad to Edinburgh, Kew, and other great national gardens.
This native section is known far and wide throughout the world, and has
been visited by many scientific men from all parts of the globe. Since
ornamental plants form only a small percentage of the native flora, a
native garden cannot be limited to these, or it would give little idea of the
New Zealand flora. To be educational it must contain as many plants
as can possibly be got to grow there. Farther on in the article the
writer states that the native section is one of the horticultural land-
marks of the Dominion, and contains abundant material for research,
at the same time forming a wonderful object-lesson as to how plants from
the most different habitats — swamp, rock, river-bed, forest, scrub, low-

Hekkiott. — llif<fi>rii of llaglnj Pari-. 433

land, st^ashore, and mcnintain — can not only tolerate but enjoy conditions
absolutely dift'ereut ; and, in conclusion, he asks that the time-honoured
native section should be as religiously preserved and well tended as the
new one, and also added to, so that together they may form the most
extensive and complete collection of New Zealand plants that has yet been
brought together.

During the terms of office of the following two curators — Mr. A. Taylor
(1889-1907) and Mr. J. Dawes (1907-8)— very little seems to have been
done beyond keeping the grounds in order, owing principally to the want
of funds and consequent lack of skilled workmen. Indeed, on several
occasions the only assistants the Head Gardener appears to have had were
men supplied by the Charitable Aid Board, and these were too infirm for
any but the lightest work.

During the years (1908-19) in which the present curator, Mr. James
Young, has been in charge many extensive changes have taken place in the
Domain and Parks. In the Domain the beds are gay in the different seasons
with the various annuals. The new native section, witJi its luxuriant growth
of native plants, is an important addition for the student ; the rose-garden,
with its wealth of blossoms of every hue, its trim walks and well-kept beds,
delights the rose-lover; while the recent addition in the shape of a children's
playground, with its paddling-pool and swings, deliglits the hearts of count-
less children and is a boon to many a parent. Many other changes are in
prospect, and all are possible only by reason of the increased funds at the
disposal of the Board. These are obtained by votes from local Boards
and Councils, and also from the proceeds of the annual fetes, instituted ow
the suggestion of Mr. Young.

The history of all the plants in the Botanic Gardens is beyond the scope
of this paper. It will be sufficient for the purpose in view to add a few
facts only concerning the planting of the historic trees or plantations.

The Historic Trees of the Domain.

The first tree to be planted in the Domain was the oak still to be found
close to the river, to the south-west of the archery-lawn. This was planted
on the 9th July, 1863, to commemorate the marriage of the late King Edward,
then Prince of Wales. It is known as the Prince Albert Edward oak. On
the same day other oaks were planted in different parts of the town : two
of these are still to be found in the grounds of the West Christchurch Scliool.
The one in the Domain is now a huge tree, with a trunk over 10 ft. in
circumference, its branches spreading across the path. It can be easily
found and identified by the brass jilate fitted into a strong post which
stands in front of it. The brass plate dates from the planting of the tree,
but for many years it was allowed to become so discoloured as to be almost
undecipherable. It has recently been fixed in its j^resent place, and the
rubbish cleared away from the tree so that its beauty may be clearly seen.

The next trees of historic interest are those planted by the Duke of
Edinburgh on the occasion of his visit to Christchurch, in 1869. It had
been arranged that His Royal Highness was to plant the oak near the centre
of the first lawn, and four other trees were to be planted in different places
later on in the day. When this was made known to the Royal visitor he
insisted on planting them all. The oak is known as Prince Alfred's oak,
and is still to be seen in the centre of the front lawn. His Royal Highness
specially requested that this tree should never be touched with knife or axe,
and, though it badly needed it, Mr. Armstrong would not allow it to be

434: Transactions.

touched during his period of office. Since then, however, it has been
])runed and has been much improved thereby. Of the other four trees,
the Wellinfjtonia gigantea alone remains, and is seen farther to the north
of the same lawn ; the cedar of Lebanon, the Cedrus deodora, and the totara
have since died. As Mr. Armstrong cpaintl}- remarked many years ago,
the possession of five Royal trees was too much honour for one garden to
sustain.

The Araucaria imhricata just to the south of the Moorhouse statue was
planted in 1871 by Sir George Bowen, then Governor of the colony. He
planted four other trees — an oak near the north-west corner of the
enclosure near the College grounds, which was cut down in 1893 and
replaced by an elm ; an ilex oak, which is still standing on the grass plot
near the Winter Garden ; and two others.

The Marchioness of Normanby's tree is the cedar of Lebanon on the lawn
near the Museum path, not the Cedrus deodora which is at present labelled
with her name. That tree was planted later, in 1880, to celebrate Mr. J. F.
Armstrong's sixtieth birthday. It is apparently almost as big as the other
cedar, for it has made quicker growth. The Marquess of Normanby planted
an oak seedling at the end of the archery-lawn on the same day, and this
has since grown into a fine tree. It is to be found just beyond the limes.

On the 6th June, 1893, an oak was planted on the triangular lawn near
the Gardener's cottage to commemorate the marriage of Their Royal
Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of York. This oak was planted by the
chairman of the Domain Board, Mr. H. P. Murray Aynsley, who served
for many years in that capacity on the Board and devoted much time and
thought to the welfare of the Domain and Parks.

In August, 1902, an oak was planted to commemorate the coronation
of King Edward VII. This is now a fine tree, near the north-east corner
of the rose-garden, and can be easily distinguished by the stone, suitably
inscribed, which has been placed in front of it.

On the 23rd June, 1911, an oak-tree was planted by Mrs. H. J. Beswick
near the south bridge to commemorate the coronation of Knig George V.
In 1917 Lord Liverpool planted a Spanish chestnut near the South Domain
Bridgv. This ceremony was the initial step towards the proposed rock-
garden.

There are probably several other trees of historic interest in the Domain
which are not properly identified, and it is to be hoped that the Board will
act on the proposal made in 1910 to find them out and keep a record of
them, making plans of the Domain to show their position, as suggested in
the proposal.

On more than one occasion these and other trees and plants have been
named and labelled by the various curators, but a section of the public,
with a wanton disregard of their privilege in protecting one of the most
beautiful assets of their city, constantly destroy these labels either by
removing them altogether or throwing them about in other parts of the
gardens. Over and over again in the minutes of the Domain Board has
this destruction been referred to ; it is probably only the more solid nature
of the labels in front of some of these memorial trees that has preserved
them from the same treatment. This is a serious disgrace to the per-
petrators, as is also the deliberate removal of many plants from the beds,
which also has been reported from time to time. The public should be
made to realize that the beauties of the Domain are theirs to enjov and
to protect in every way.

Herkiott. — /f/.'ifor!/ "f ^^"f/^^!/ l^ork. 435

Buildings in I he Domain.

Some inentioii perhaps should be made of tlie buildings and other
structures of a permanent character found in the Domain. In 1869 the
first buildings of the Museum were erected. These faced the front lawn of
the Domain. The front rooms and new entrance off Rolleston Avenue
were added at a later date. The Board of Governors of Canterbury College,
to whom the Museum buildings belong, have no title to the land on which
the buildings stand, and this has hindered the erection of additional build-
ings. In 1872 the Gardener's cottage was built on its present site, and
various alterations have been made from time to time, the last being the
addition of a Board-room. In 1874 the attempt of the Provincial Council
to take another portion of the Domain for the erection of Canterbury
College led to the resignation in a body of the Board, who thus protested
against the alienation of the reserve from the purpose for which it had been
set aside. Public protest also led later to the abandonment of this i:)roject.

The sun-dial must have been placed in the Domain quite early in its
history, for no mention can be found of it in the minutes. It is said that
it was presented by Mr. W. Guise Brittan. who brought it out from England
with him. It stood originally where the Moorhouse statue now stands,
but was moved to its present position in 1873. The Moorhouse statue was
set up in 1885 after some discussion as to the suitability of its being placed
in the Domain. In 1902 the Magnetic Observatory was built and a small
])ortion of the grounds fenced off surrounding it. The Rolleston statue
was placed in position in front of the Museum and fronting Worcester Street
in 1905. In 1908 the Old Colonists' Association applied for and received
permission to erect a stone pillar with a brass plate in the Pilgrims' Corner.
This led to some discussion as to the actual place whicli should be known
by that name. In 1913, out of the funds bequeathed to the Beautifying
Association by the Hon. J. T. Peacock, an elaborate fountain was erected.
It was originally right on the path, but was later moved to its present
jiosition and the pond then formed round it. The Winter Garden consists
of the conservatory and orchid-house from Holly Lea, and was presented
to the Domain by Mrs. A. Q. Townend in 1914.

The present nursery grounds and buildings were taken possession of in
1875. Previous to this date the nursery was situated on the ground now
occupied by the old native section.

The above gives a very brief history of the Domain, but naturally it
cannot be treated exhaustively from a botanical standj)oint. The gardens
contain much of great interest to the student of plants from his own and
foreign lands. In this paper, however, the writer is attempting to trace
the changes that have taken place in the vegetation from its virgin state
to the present day, with a more particular account of what native plants
may be supposed to have maintained their existence from that time. It
would be very unlikely that any of our indigenous plants could have
managed to exist under the conditions that have prevailed in the Domain
since it has been so carefully cultivated, though it is possible that a very
few might be able to re-establish themselves if the soil were allowed to lie
waste. Nearly all the indigenous plants that are to be found to-day in
the original reserve are in that j)art of it known as the North and South
Hagley Parks.

History of the Park.

The various events of historical interest that have taken i)lace in the
Park have all had their influence on the vegetation, and will be considered

436 Transactions.

briefly. The first, already referred to, was the " farewell breakfast "
tendered to Mr. J. R. Godley in the end of 1852. Thirty years later — that
is, in 1882 — the South Park was the scene of the Industrial Exhibition.
The large entrance-gates, presented by the promoters of the Exhibition,
Messrs. Joubert and Twopenny, now form the entrance at Hereford Street,
being erected there in 1883. In 1901 there was a great military review in
North Park, held on the occasion of the visit of Their Royal Highnesses the
Duke and Duchess of York. In Coronation year, 1902, a huge bonfire was
made in North Park, between the Armagh Street entrance and the lake. In
1905 the buildings for the International Exhibition were commenced and
land enclosed for grounds. These extended from the South Domain Bridge,
near the lake, to Carlton Bridge, and in the Park from a point commenc-
ing on Helmore Road. This ground consisted of a total of 116 acres —
86 acres of free ground, 5 acres of lake, and 25 acres of plantation. In
1910, at the time of Lord Kitchener's visit, a Volunteer camjj was held in
the North Park. On all these occasions there was of necessity a great
disturbance of the soil and destruction of vegetation. One of the condi-
tions laid down in each case by the Board was that the ground should be
restored to its natural state when the period of occupation was completed ;
but this was not possible in every case, and a few of the native plants
were lost for ever to the Park on more than one of these occasions.

In 1897, the Diamond Jubilee year of Queen Victoria, the piece of
swamp near Armagh Street was formed into a lake and named Victoria
Lake after the Queen. It consisted when finished of 5 acres of water, and
was 3 ft. deep. The formation of such a lake had been suggested in 1874
by Mr. R. Wilkin, then a member of the Domains Board, but his proposal
had not been agreed to. In 1916 the smaller lake to the north was formed
as at present, the soil having been removed to improve the border on
Rolleston Avenue. There was some trouble at first as regards the water-
supply feeding Victoria Lake, but Mr. Young has made use of the 1906
Exhibition deep wells to feed both Victoria Lake and the smaller lakelet
beside it.

From a botanical standpoint the destruction of this swamp is much to
be regretted, for it contained very many of the indigenous plants which
have since that time been lost to the neighbourhood of Christchurch. Such
a piece of swamp quite close to the centre of the town would be always
easy of access to the student, who now has to go much farther afield in
search of bog-plants.

The Park was also used by Volunteer corps as a camping-ground ; and.
as the first records show, it has been used from the earliest days of the
settlement as a sports-ground. The cricket clubs were the first to make
use of it, and the South Park has been the scene of their activities from
1867. Later the polo club and the hockey clubs obtained the use of certain
portions of the same park. The North Park has been used by various
football clubs, golf clubs, and tennis clubs. The latter have laid down
permanent courts and erected pavilions of a more or less permanent
character. At first, however, the Boards granted the use of the Park only
on condition that no buildings of a permanent nature should be erected, and
more tlian one football club was requested to remove the structures it had
put up. In every way an effort was made to guard the reserve from an\'
attempt to appropriate any portion of it for the few : it was to be held in
trust for the public as a whole. It is to be hoped that the people of Christ-
church will in the future be equally as careful to preserve these public
^rounds which the forethought of the earlv colonists set aside for their use.

Herriott. — History of Haglcy Parh. 437

In 1888 four cricket clubs in South Park and eight football clubs in
North Park together occupied 49 acres. In 1913 the ap[)roximate area of
sports-grounds was estimated at 68 acres.

The Soil of Hagley Park.

The nature of the soil on which any plant association is found is always
important in the study of the plants forming that association. The soil of
Haglev Park is for the most part very sandy, with patches of shingle and
smaller areas of swampy ground, though the latter is not now so extensive
as it once was. Geologically the Park belongs to the Canterbury Plains,
and some account of their formation has been taken from Sir Julius von
Haast's report of 1864.*

After describing the probable state of this South Island during the
Tertiary and succeeding glacial periods at the close of which the Canter-
bury Plains began to be formed by the deposits carried down by the
glacier torrents, he postulates the formation of a huge lagoon extending
from the Rakaia to the Waimakariri. This he considered was formed by
a bank composed of deposits of sand and silt carried down by the glacier
torrents and so enclosing an arm of the sea. The bank was added to by
the drift sand along the coast. Of this lagoon only Lake EUesmere now
remains. The rest has been filled up partly with deposits of silt or glacial
mud brought down by the big rivers Rakaia, Selwyn, and Waimakariri (all
of which he considered emptied into this huge lagoon), partly by deltas
formed by these rivers, and also by the invasion of drift sand from the
seashores. By slow upheavals swamps were probably formed, giving rise
to extensive beds of peat, by means of which the ground gradually became
still higher, so as to offer the necessary conditions for the growth of the
kahikatea (white-pine) (Podocarpus dacrydioides) and other forest-trees,
whilst in the intersecting channels between the dry lands the deposits of
silt were still thrown down to form beds of clay and loam (p. 55).

The swampv ground on which Podocarpus dacrydioides established
itself is farther to the north and west of Hagley Park, but certain
small areas within the Park are still swampy, and Victoria Lake marks
the site of the largest swamp of more recent years, which for long
was an eyesore to the beauty-loving section of the Christchurch public,
but, as mentioned above, formed the home of many of our native
swamp-plants. The other swampy areas are indicated by the presence
of the sedge Schoeniis pauciflorus. The greater part of the Park,' how-
ever, is shingly or sandy in character. The shingle has proved a source
of revenue to the Domain Boards for many years, while the sand is
everywhere present at a gieater or less depth from the surface. This
sand was a serious trouble to the early Boards. The question of how to
stay its inroads or prevent its drifting was at length answered by the hajipy
suggestion of one Board member in 1881 that the City Council be asked
to deposit all grass scrapings from the streets on such areas. That appa-
rently settled the difficulty, for no more complaints concerning sand-drifts
are heard in the Board meetings. Instead, complaints of a different nature
were heard, to the effect that the City Council were exceeding their ])rivi-
lege by depositing more than grass scrapings, and so making of the Park
an unsightly dumping-ground for all kinds of city refuse.

* Geological Reports to the Provincial Council o/ Canterbury : 2. Report on Formation
of Canterburv Plains, Session XXII, 186-t.

438 Transactions.

The surface soil of the Park to-day is very different from what it was
sixty-nine years ago, when the reserve was first set aside. By 1865. accord-
ing to Mr. Armstrong's recollections, South Park had been sown down and
partially levelled. North Park was much more uneven, the soil much
poorer, and drift sand abundant. It was covered by very slight vegetation.
Now, by this year 1919, every square inch has been dug or ploughed over
more than once. Loads of soil have been carted from the Park to the
Gardens for flower-beds and to form the present paths of Rollesto:! Avenue.
Still other loads of city refuse have been deposited in different ])arts of the
Park and covered over with soil, at first for the purpose of settling the
drift sand. Deep excavations have been made for the purpose of laying
electric cables or in the erection* of earthworks for the Volunteer Engineers
in days gone by. Certain parts of South Park have been cropped, and in
later years extensive areas have been planted in potatoes with the idea of
clearing the ground, levelling it, and preparing it for sports-grounds. Other
existing sports-grounds have been levelled and sown with grasses. The
ground on which the Exhibition buildings were erected has been thoroughly
disturbed, and several native plants have been seen no more since that
time. The laying-down of tennis-courts, cutting hay, grazing, occasional
bonfires — all have had a sliare in changing the character of the soil and
consequently the plant covering.

The Plaxt Covering.

In considering the plant covering of the Park it will be best to speak
first of the trees forming the plantations and avenues, then of the herbaceous
plants, paying most attention to the indigenous plants which are still to be
found growing here, and which may be considered as having formed ]:)art
of the original plant covering. It is chiefly to form some printed record of
what is known of these plants that this paper was taken in hand.

First, then, some history is given of the planting of the trees.

According to the minutes of March, 1904, Mr. H. P. Murray Aynsley
stated that the avenues in the Parks had been planted in the hoi)e that
some day a j^roper drive would be formed round the Park. Some planta-
tions must have been in existence in 1867, for in that year application was
made for the use of the grass growing within the plantations, and later
in the same year trespassers were reported to be injuring the trees. In
1868 there is a record of the damage caused to the plantations by the turkeys
and ])igs which had been allowed to run there. The first mention recorded
of the actual planting in the Park was in the autumn of 1870. when land
was enclosed for an avenue to extend from a plantation (probalily the pine
plantation west of Victoria Lake) to the entrance near Plough Inn. That is
now the avenue of Oriental plane trees which is one of the beauties of the
North Park. As stated above, these plane-trees were raised from cuttings
by Mr. J. B. Armstrong. A plantation of an acre was made also on the
high ground and sandhills north of the footpath. This was of pines, and
is still in existence as the pine clump to the north of the lake. That same
season instructions were given that " the waste ground north of the road
near Carlton Bridge be enclosed and planted with pines." This is what
is known now as Helmore's Plantation. The pines in the corner by Carlton
Bridge were also planted at this time.

The following year, 1871, saw the plantation at the south-west corner of
the South Park fonned from trees removed from the avenues along Lincoln

Herriott. — History of Hnfihii Park. 439

and Riccarton Roads, the ])Iantation along Riccarton Road comjjieted, and
two small plantations formed on the south side of the road leading to
Charlton Bridge. A shingle-pit in the park was also enclosed with a sub-
stantial fence and planted with fir-trees.

In 1875 the Head Gardener reported the fencijig-off of ground and the
planting of a new avenue from the north entrance of the Park along
Riccarton and Lincoln Roads, thence along the South and West Belts to
Washbourn's Creek, and the continuation of the avenue walk from Lincoln
Road along the South to the West Belt. The lime-trees along the north
side of the Park were reported to have been destroyed by hares which had
escaped from the Acclimatization Society's grounds.

This year (1875) it was also suggested that the avenue in front of the
Domain and College should be added to Antigua Street by removing the old
fence, the holly fence just within if reinforced with wire netting being suffi-
cient to keep out dogs. Though the completion of this work is not recorded,
it probably was carried out during that season, adding greatly to the beauty
of what is now known as Rolleston Avenue. This avenue includes some
of the oldest trees, planted originally by Mr. Barker. The chestnut-trees
from Worcester Street to Gloucester Street are especially beautiful during
the flowering season. It is worthy of record that this avenue occupies
ground that was originally marked off as a reserve for a mill-race to extend
from the river at Armagh Street to the river at the Hospital grounds, and
it is occasionally referred to in the early minutes as a " canal reserve."
This plan of forming a canal was soon dropped, and on application from the
City Council the " canal reserve " was formed into a footpath.

In 1876 it was decided to replace the more common cork-bark elm and
ash trees growing in South Park opposite the Saleyards with English elm
and Pinus ladiata, the latter to act as nurses. These latter have been cut
down for some years, and the English elms are left.

The grove of trees between the South Bridge and the Riccarton Road
was in 1902 named the Harman Grove, in memory of Mr. R. J. S. Harman,
who had rendered valuable assistance to the Board for tl e many years
during which he had served as chairman.

In 1904 Mr. M. Murphy suggested the appropriation of 3 acres between
Victoria Lake and Armagh Street as a plot for making a collection of hardy
trees and shrubs of Australia, but his proposal does not appear to have been
acted upon.

Beyond this the minutes make no further record of planting trees in the
parks, but much attention has been paid to the jiroper care of those already'
planted. These have been pruned or thinned out as need arose, often amid
cries of vandalism from the critics who thought they knew better than those
whose work it was to attend to these matters. The trees of avenues and
plantations to-day, however, are for the most part in a healthy condition,
many of them adding greatly to the beauty of the city reserve. The lime
avenue of the South Park and the Oriental plane avenue of the North
Park and the Rolleston Avenue are especially worthy of mention.

The rest of the area of the Park, excluding the trees and the potato
patches, is pasture-land suitable for sheep. The greater proportion of the
plants to be found there at the present day are therefore introduced grasses
and fodder plants. Chief among the introduced grasses are species of
Agrosfis, Festuca, Lolium, DactijUs, Cynoaurus, &c., together with man}'
of the more useless grasses, such as species of Holcus, Brovms, and Hoidettm.
This latter {H. t)iuri)mm) has spread considerably in certain parts, notably

440 Transactions.

in the pine plantation to the north of Victoria Lake. Amongst the legunii-
nous plants can be found several species of TrifoUum and Medicago. The
common crucifiers CapseUa and Sisymhrium, the composite Achillaea mille-
folium, and the ordinary composite weeds Senecio, Cnicus, Taraxacum, &c.,
are abundant. Pknitago major, Polygonum Convolvulus, and Rumex spp. are
present, while in one portion the lupin is gaining ground.

Most of these weeds belong to the class of plants that occur in any
waste land, or in permanent-])asture land that is left to itself for any length
of time. Their fruits or seeds are easily carried by wind or animals from
one place to another. In some cases they were probably introduced as
impurities of the grass-seed sown.

More important for the purpose of this jiaper is the record of the
indigenous plants that have been collected in the Domain or Parks from
time to time. Such lists naturally exclude all indigenous plants that may
have been planted purposely, such as those that are found in the native
sections of the Domain. Only those that from their position now mav be
considered to have formed part of the original flora of the reserve will be
mentioned in these lists. A comparison of their contents will give some
idea of the ability of New Zealand plants to hold their own in the face of
the European intruders, and of tlieir prospective ultimate fate in the struggle
for existence.

The published records are very sca)ity, but I am deeply indebted to
Mr. J. B. Armstrong for permission to use a list he made in 1864 of the
indigenous flora of Hagley Park and Domain, a list which has hitherto
been in manuscript only. This is given below (list A).

The first reference to the plants is that given above* in the description
of the vegetation through which tJie pioneer party had to force a \\"ay. and
probably it is descriptive rather of the country lying farther to the west
of Hagley Park, though some of the plants would ])e common in the Park.
The ■' fern " would be the common Pteridium esculentum, or bracken, found
in all waste places on the Plains. The "' tutu," Coriaria sarmentosu, used
to be found in patches along the river. The " tussock," Poa caespitosa, is
still to be seen in certain parts of North Park. The " bramble," a term
applied usually to the various species of Rubus, has not been recorded
actually from the Park. The " Spaniard," Aciphylla squarrosa, has dis-
appeared only recently.

This casual reference dealt only with the more prominent constituents
of the flora ; the smaller herbaceous plants, not causing any trouble to the
jiioneers, were not noticed at all.

The next list in point of time is that supplied by Mr. J. B. Armstrong,
which gives the names of the plants present in both Park and Domain
in 1864. The Domain was at that time in the same uncultivated state as
the Park — in fact, it was in a more natural state than the South Park,
which had been cropped before that date, with the consequence that it
was rather poor in native plants. In some cases where the names given
by Mr. Armstrong dift'er from those in Cheeseman's Manual the latter are
given also in scjuare brackets, as are also some additions. The species
marked with an asterisk are given by Mr. Armstrong, and have therefore
been included in the list, though some authorities express a little doubt as
to the correctness of the identification.

* Canterbury Old and Xeiv, p. 50.

Hehkiott. — Ifisfoni of Jhniltii TarL- .

441

Lui A. — In(U<;enou>i Flora of Hagle// Park

^ 1864.

(111(1 Domai)!: Christchurch. in

Trees. — None.

Shrubs.

Cvprosina rouusla Raoul
Leptospermum scopariuin Foi.st.
]>iscari(t loitmatuu Raoul
Coriar'Ki ruscifolla L.
Olearid rin/atu Hook. f.
Veroiiicn salicifolia Forst.

[-ociilitv.
Kiver bank.
A few in the Domain.
Dry shingly si^ot-s.
In patclies along river.
A few in Domain. •
Common along the river.

Herbaceous Pl.\xts, Fki;\s, etc.

Cloiidt'ts hKtrala Annstrons

RaiiiDiculu-^ hirtus B. & S.

R. riruluris B. & t^. . .

R. seS'^iliflorus R. Br. [probably intruilu<Td]

Cardaminf. hirsuta DC. var. a.

Viola Cunninf/Jiamii Hook. f. . .

Hjipericuin japonicum Thunb. . .

(ienoiium disseclmii L. var.

Pekirgonium dandestinvni L'Herit. [^ P. ((((■■'trfdc

(Chee.seman)]
Carm.ichaeUa nana Col.

G. fl(tgellifor)nis Col. [C. subulata T. Kirk]

PotentiUa anserinoides Raoul [P. anserina var.
an.tprlnoides']
*Geum marjellanicum Comm. [— G. iirbaniim (Cluscse-
man)]

Acaena Saiujuisorbae Vahl.
*Drosera dichotoma B. & S. [= /A bitiata (Cheese-
man)] . . . . ...

Haloragis ulata Jacq.

//. depressa, Hook. f. . .

Myriophylluni elalinoides Gaud.

M. variaefoliuin Hook. f. [= M. intermrdiinn DC.
(Cheeseman)]

CalUtrichr .^fa(jnat(i 8eap. [= C. vena L. (Cheese-
man)]

E})ilobiuia niDiunvlari folium L.
*E. aUiiioidf's A. Cinin.

E. microphylhim A. Rich.

E. junreum Forst.

E. Billardierianum Rer.

Hydrocotyle asiatica L.

H. norae-zealandiae T>V.

H. mofchaki Forst.
*Oraiitzia lineata Nutt.

Aciphylla squarrosa Forst.

Galium umbros^im. Forst.

Celmisia lovgifolia Cass.

LugeiiopJiora Forsteri DC.

Cotula dioica Hook. f.

C. ■•iqualida Hook, f . . .

Raoulia Monroi Hook. f.

Gnaphalium. jilicaulc. Hook. f. [-^ Helichrysum pli-
caule (Cheeseman)]

G. involur.raiuin Forst. [= G. japonicum (Cheese-
man)]

G. collinum Lab.

Erechtites quadridenlaia. DC. . .

Abundant on l)if<caria.

River-ljank.

iSwamp (now Victoria Lake).

Sandy spots, North Park.

Biver-bank.

Swamp.

Sandy spots, North Park.

Biver-bank.

Common in Domain and parks.
Common in shingly places in

Domain.
(^ras.sy places.

Swamj).

Swam]).

Sandy spots. North Park.

Swamp.

River- hank.

Shingly places. North l-'ark.

In river.

In river.

Swamp.

Wet sjjots.

Swam]).

Dry sandy spots.

Dry places.

River- bank.

Swani]).

Wet jilaces.

Swamjj.

Wet ])laces.

North Park.

River-bank.

Swamji.

Dry places, North Park.

Wet ]ilaces.

W^et ])laces.

North Park, near lake.

North Park.

^Yet sjiots.

Dry sandy spots.

North Park.

442

Transactions.

Microseris Forsteri Hook. f. . .
*Sonchus a.iper Hill
Wnhlenhergia gnicilis DC.
Leucopoijon Franeri A. < "uun. . .
Myosotis sp., undescribed, with yellow flowers

[probably M. austmlis R. Br.]
Solanuin nigrum L. . .
Mentha Cunnincjhatn.ii Bentli. . .
PJaittcKjf) Baoulii Decaisne
Scleranthus bifloru.<: Hook, f . . .
Urtica incisa Poir.

Microtis porrifolia R. Br.

Pterdstylit Banksii R. Br.

TJielymitra longifolia Forst.

Lenina minor L.
*Bidbindla Hookeri Benth.
*Anguillaria novae-zealandine Hook. f. [= Iphigcnia
novae-zenlancliae (Clieeseman)]

Junrus austmlis Hook. f. [= •/. vaginatus (Cheese-
man)]

./. romniums L. [= J. cffnsus (Cheeseman)J

•/. kufonins L.
*•/. j)lau if alius R. Bi'. . .

■/. novae-tcnlaml iae Hook. i. . .
*Lepid.osperma tetragona Lab. (?) [perhaps Eleocharis
sp.]

Oarex secta Boott.

C. ternaria Forst.

Hierochloe redolens R. Br.

DiehelacJme crinita Hook. f. . .
*Agrostis parmjlora R. Br.

.4. aernula R. Br. [= Deyeuxia Forsteri Cheeseman]

Arundo consjiicun Forst.

Danthonia seminnnnlaris R. Br.

Deschaiiipsia. caespiiosa Pal.

Trisetum antarcticmn Trin.

Poa caespiiosa Forst.

Poa n. sp. with purple qlumes

Triticuni. scahrnni R. Br. [Agmpyruni scabrnm,
Beauv.]

Ornithopteris esculenta Agardh. [= Pteris uquilina
esculenia Ch., Pteridium esculentum] . .

LoiYMria procfra Spreng [= L. rnpensis (Cheese-
man)]

L. minor Spreng. [a var. of L. cdp^nsis']

Ophioglossum lusitanicum Willd.
*0. minimum Col.
*0. vulgatum. L.

Botrychium. australe R. Br. [= B. ternatv.m (Cheese-
man)]

Locality.
Common in moist sand.
River-bank.
Cojumon in all parts.
Loose sand, North Park.

Common ; probably not native.

Wet places.

Dry sand}^ places.

Dry loose sand (Wonderland).

Common on river-bank, Helmore's

Plantation.
Common in Domain.
Swamp onh'.
Common in dry places.
In water.
Along Washbourn's Creek.

Shingly spots.

Wet places.
Swamp, &c.
Wet places.
Swamp.
Damp sand.

River-bank.

River-bank.

Swamp.

River- bank.

Both parks.

Both })arks.

Both parks.

River-bank and swamji.

Botli parks.

Both parks.

North Park.

Common all over.

Domain only.

(,'ommnn in both parks.

Domain.

Along the river.

River -bank and swamp.

Domain.

Domain only, very rare.

Common thronghout.

South Park, common.

This li^tjnotes the presence in the Parks and Domain of some eighty-
eight indigenous jikints, and it is interesting to compare it with the list
given below of the native plants that have been noticed in the Parks during
the last two years. The two areas richest in New Zealand j^lants at that
time were the big swamp, destroyed later with all its indigenous flora to
form Victoria Lake, and the stretch of sandy ground on which the Wonder-
land of the 1906 Exhibition was built. In both cases the plants that once
flourished there are gone for ever.

Mr. T. H. Potts {Out in the Open, p. 112) records the occurrence of the
fern Botrychium fernatum from. the Hospital grounds: "Very handsome

Herriott. — HIsfnrii of [hnjleii Park. 443

examples luive been got from the space lying between the Christehurch
Hospital and the River Avon. Old settlers will remember that the situ-
ation is, or was, rather, of a moist character ; the fronds of the plants froni
this S])ot displayed a fine deconipound habit." Farther on the same
writer records the abundant occurrence in former days of Ophioglossum
ralyatum about the North Town Belt, and, as seen from Mr. Armstrong's
list, it was common throughout the Parks and Domain. It is possible that
a close search might reveal its presence even now.

Dr. Chilton has kindly handed over to me a list of some of the native
plants growing in North Hagley Park that were noticed by himself
and Dr.' Cockayne. The list bears the date of the 12th July, 1905. It is
as follows : Poa caespitosa Forst., Carex ternaria Forst., C. virgata 8ol.,
Juncus communis E. Meyer., Muehlenbeckia axillans Hook, f., Tillaea
verticiUaris DC, T. Sieberiana Cheeseman, Carmichaelia subulafa T. Kirk,
Geranmm sessiliflorum Cav., CaUitriche verna L., Aciphylla squarrosa
Forst., Raoulia Monroi Hook, f., Cotula dioica Hook, f., Leiicopof/o)t
Fraseri A. Cunn.

This does not claiin to be a complete list, but is interesting as affording
additional evidence of the comparatively recent presence of AcipJudla
squarrosa, Raoulia Monroi, Muehlenbeckia axillaris, and Leuccjpogou Fraseri,
none of wliich can be found there now.

Strangely enough, a few patches of Muehlenbeckia axillaris are estab-
lishing themselves in the front lawn of the Domain. As this was all
ploughed up and resown a few years ago, the appearance of this plant
must be quite accidental, and cannot be regarded as a survival of the
original flora, though it was doubtless present then.

The only other mention 1 can find of New Zealaiid plants in Hagley
Park occurs in Laing and Blackwell's Plants of New Zealand, 1906. On
page 216, in connection with the description of Oxalis cornicnlata, a brief
list is given, excluding monocotyledons. The list is as follows : Oxalis
corniculata, Carmichaelia flagelUformis, Ligusticum {Aciphylla) Golensoi,
Raoulia Monroi, Geranium, microphijllum, Muehlenbeekia axillaris, and Cotula
speciosa. Oi these, only Oxalis corniculata and Carmichaelia flagelUformis
are found now, and it is possible, as Mr. J. B. Armstrong says, that the
Oxalis is the introduced form, not the original New Zealand form of the
species. It is, as Mr. Laing states, common in many of the lawns right
in the centre of the city, and may have been introduced as an impuritv
in the grass-seed sown.

Of the other plants which have since been lost, both Raoulia Monroi
and Muehlenbeckia axillaris were present on the sandy ground near the
Armagh Street entrance before the 1906 Exhibition, but have not been
seen since. Aciphylla squarrosa has since disappeared, and Cotula speciosa
is very evidently a misprint, probably for Cotula dioica, which is still to be
found in small c[uantities.

The accompanying list (list B), drawn U]) in 1918, for which I am
indebted to Professor A. Wall, of (Canterbury College, includes five species
which were not actually found in the Park, but in its immediate vicinity,
where freshly turned soil has provided a suitable oi)portunity for these
natives to re-establish themselves, and in each case it is interesting to
note that these plants occur in Armstrong's list. They are enclosed in
parentheses. The species marked with an asterisk are present in very
small numbers, in some cases onh^ one plant being found.

444 Transactions.

List B. — New Zealand Plants found now in Hagley Park.

Monocotyledons.
Gramiiieae :

Danthonia semiannularis, Poa caespitosa, Alejwcurus geniculatus.
Cyperaceae :

Eleocharis acuta, E. Cunninghamii, Schoenus pauciflorus, Carex virgata,
C. secta, C. inveisa, C. ternaria, C. lucida.
Juncaceae :

J uncus pauciflorus, J . ejfusu^s, J . hufonius,
(Jrchidaoeae :

{Microtis porrifolia.)
Polygonaceae :

*Mnehlenbeck ia complexa .
Crassulaceae :

Tillaea Sieberiana.
Ranunculaceae :

^Ranunculus hirtus.
Rosaceae :

Acaena novae-zelandiae.
Leguminosae :

*Carmichaelia suhulata.
Oxalidaceae :

Oxalis corniculata.
Callitrichaceae :

Callitriche verna.
Onagraceae :

^{Epilohium Billardierianum), *E. rot undi folium, E. nummidarifolium,
^E. nerterioides, (E. novae-zelandiae).
Haloragaceae :

*Haloragis erecta [H. alata in CheeReman's Manual of N .Z. Flora].
Uinbelliferae :

Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae, H. nioschata, *H. asiatica.
Convolvulaceae :

Dichondra repens.
Campanuiaceae :

*{Pratia angulata), *WaMenbergia gracilis.
Compositae :

Gnaphaliurn luteo-album., *(t. japonicuni, Cotula australis, C. dioica,
'''Erechtifes prenanthoides. *{E. quadridentata).

A comparison of these two more or less complete lists reveals some
rather interesting changes. The only grasses common to tlie two are the
tussock Poa caespitosa and Danthonia semiannularis ; the others of list A
are not recorded in list B, though it is possible that the species of Agrostis
may have escaped notice. The little species Poa Lindsagi has estalilished
itself on the edges of the old native section. It cannot be definitely stated
in this case whether it is reasserting itself or whether it has been introduced
with some of the plants that have been transplanted from other parts. It
may possibly be the same as the " poa with purple glumes " mentioned in
list A. The Cyperaceae are represented in list A by three species, including
only two sjoecies of Carex, against five species in list B. The Juncaceae,
again, have five representatives in list A and only three in list B. two of theiu

Herriott. — HiRforii of llaghij Park. 445

being common to both. No iiRMnber of the Orchidaceae is actually found
in the Park now, though Microtis porrifolia was discovered on the road-
side quite near. Mr. Armstrong records that two s])«M-ics, Miciolis porrifolia
and Thelymitra longifolia. were common, and that Pferostt/lm Biotksii was
found in the swamp, which in his description of the localities always refers
to that swam]) now the site of Victoria Lake. He does not remember ever
coming across anv species of MueMe)iheclia complexa, which, therefore, never
formed a prominent member of the primitive vegetation of tliis district.
It is represented now by only one rather sickly-looking specimen on the
side of the ditch at the extreme south of South Park, and its i)resence
there may be accidental. All the shru])s given in list A have disa})peared,
unless a small jjlant of Coprosma robust a is excepted. This was considered
to be a garden escape. With the Discaria has gone Clematis marata. which
is usuallv found in closest association with it. Of the Ranunculaceae only
R. hirtiis is left, and it is found in only one place in South Park and is
in danger of extinction. Oarmichaelia suhulata, represented at most by
two plants, is also in like danger, its palatability to sheep having proved
inimical to its prolonged existence ; m fact, it is only very occasionally
that it can be found, owing ])artly to its position amongst the long grass,
but chiefly to its being so frequently eaten down. The Oxalis has already
been mentioned. Mr. Armstrong did not consider the species present in
the Park to be the native one. Epilobinm BiMardieriavum was found i)i
the Park, according to list A. In list B it is recorded as being found out-
side the actual. boundaries of the Park, but is included in the list as one
that probably occurred there originally. The three hydrocotyles occur on
both lists. DicJio)i(lra repens is rather disappointingly absent from list A.
It occurs on list B, and is found in great abundance on a waste sandy rise
in the Helmore Plantation. It flourishes there to the exclusion of all other
plants, introduced and native, its creeping stems enabling it to claim fresli
ground in ever-widening rings each year. It is still found on th<' Port Hills
in many parts, and is also found as a rather troublesome weed in many
gardens and lawns. Its presence may have been overlooked by Mr. Arm-
strong when he was compiling his list, or it may have been overshadowed
by other larger plants which have since from various causes died out,
leaving the territory free for this tenacious little plant. It is hardly
likely that it was absent altogether from the original vegetation, seeing
that it is so prevalent in other places. It is interesting to see that
Gnaphalium japonicuni was once more abundant than it is now. when
it is represented by only one jilant, at the side of Washboui'n"s Creek, and
is at different times eaten down and hard to find. Wahlerthergia gracilis is
now very difficult to find, but was once very cojnmon, as it still is on the
Port Hills and in other places.

A comparison of these plants with those still found in areas which
presumably were covered by similar vegetation reveals the absence of some
that might quite pardonably have been expected to pei'sist. For instance,
the small grass Triodia exigaa is found on the Waimakariri River bed,
which greatly resembles the soil condition of certain parts of Hagley Park.
Carmichaelia nana is also common in the same locality, but apj)arently
quite absent from £he Park.

The question arises as to the ultimate fate of these few natives that
have managed to hold their own through so many vicissitudes. Will they
all continue to maintain their existence in the struggle, or are they doomed
to extinction ? Those that are palatabh^ to the stock grazing in the Park

446 Transacfions.

and arc also accessible to them are probably doomed : these are the Car-
michaelia, Haloragis, G>taphalium jajwnicum, and Erechtiies. Others which
fortunately possess some property rendering them distasteful to the grazing-
aninials, or which are j^rovided with some means of vegetative propagation,
or with seeds which are easily distributed, will continue to flourish unless
actually uprooted and destroyed. The tussock is proof against most things
save fire and cattle ; the rushes and sedges flourish where damp conditions
prevail, and are safe round the margins of the lakes ; the Acaena and
Epilobium are provided with easily distributed seeds ; the habit of the
cotulas is a useful one in elbowing out competitors ; and the acrid juices
of the hydrocotyles protect them from the hoi-ses which are at present
their only enemies.

The fact that our native flora does disappear before European plants
has been recorded more than once. In 1875, in his New Zealand Handbook,
Juhus Vogel states that " the lower hills, especially of the Peninsula, were
rapidly covered with English grass and clover, which spread of their own
accord, rapidly killing the native pastures " (p. 127). The reasons for this
are not hard to find. In 1882 Mr. T. F. Cheeseman gave some of them in
his paper '■ On Naturalized Plants of Auckland District " {Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 15, pp. 268-98). He points out that the advent of European settlers
introduced a set of conditions injurious to the indigenous fauna and flora.
They destroyed the vegetation to make room for houses, roads, &c. Thev
introduced herbivorous animals, such as sheep, cattle, horses, which rapidlv
ate down all j^lants that they found palatable. These might struggle against
such treatment for a longer or shorter time, but in the end they perished
from this continual cropping, and their place was taken by plants protected
in some way from the attacks of animals, either by the possession of thorns
or acrid juices, or by others which were able to exist when eaten. Examples
of such plants among the natives would be Discaria, Poa, Danthonia, &c.
Then, again, the practice of burning large tracts of vegetation destroyed
many of the natives, and the native flora had no plants which could take
possession of fresh soil laid bare in any of these ways, whereas the European
weeds found here an environment quite suited to them and for which they
had been modified for many years.

When this is remembered it is astonishing not that we have so few native
plants still remaining in our Park but that we have so many. Grazing-
animals were introduced here almost at once : part of the Domain known
as the ■■ old pinetum " is the site of an old deer-paddock. Pheasants and
hares introduced by the Acclimatization Society worked havoc in Domain
and Parks, and much damage was caused in early days by pigs, while sheep
have been grazing contiiiuously for sixty-nine years.

An interesting experiment, suggested by Professor Wall, Avould be the
enclosure of a suitable portion of the Park where the native jilants should
be given every opportunity of living under conditions as similar as could
be obtained to those originally existing in the Park. European weeds
should be removed, and native plants now no longer found in the Park
but originally growing there should be obtained from such places as the
Waimakariri River bed and encouraged to grow in this enclosure. The
number of plants that could re-establish themselves under these conditions
could then be determined. The place need not be an eyesore to the general
pubhc, and the horse-paddock now existing would be a very suitable site
for such an ex])erimental plot. Needless to say, the scientific value of
such an experiment would be very great.

Herriott. — flistory of IliKjley Park.

447

In conclusion, the writer wishes to thank all those who have given
assistance in many ways during the preparation of tliis [taper : Dr. Chilton
for his advice and encouragement, without which the paper would not have
been undertaken ; Mr. James Young and Mr. W. F. Hilson for j^erraissiou
to consult the minute-books of the Domain Boad ; Mr. J. B. Armstrong
for much valuable information regarding the past history of the Gardens
and Park and for the list of native plants ; Professor A. Wall for his pains-
taking search for the native plants now present in the Park ; Messrs. J. C.
Andersen, E. Speight, W. D. Andrews, and R. M. Laing for help of other
kinds.

Art. XXXIX. — A New Discoglossoid Frog from Neiv Zealand.

By Allan R. McCulloch, Zoologist, Australian Museum.

[Read before the New Zealand Institute, at Christchv.rch, 4th-8th February, 1919 : received
by Editor, 11th February. 1919 ; issued separately, 26th Augvst. 1919.]

Plate XXX.

Liopelma hamiltoni n. sp.

General form moderately robust. The width of the head is equal to
its length from the ti]) of the snout to the nuchal constriction. Snout
rounded, flattened above ; the profile anterior to the nostrils very oblique.
Nostril midway between the tip of the snout and the eye. Canthus
rostralis moderately distinct ; loreal region flat and very oblique. The
eye is shorter than the snout, and the diameter of its opening is a little

Fig. I. — Liopelma hamiltoni, sternal apparatus.
Fig. 2. — L. hochstetteri, sternal apparatus.
Fig. 3. — L. hamiltoni, roof of rnouth.
Fig. 4. — L. hamiltoni, sacral diapophyses.

greater than its distance from the nostril. Narrowest interorbital space
about one-third greater than the width of the upper eyelid. No tym})anum.
A dorso-lateral ridge extends backwards from behind the eye to above
the abdomen, and is interrupted above the insertion of the arm. M;i.ndible
pointed at the symphysis. Tongue much narrower than in L. hochstetteri,
its width little more than half that of the mouth ; posterior end of the

44:8 Transactions.

tongue almost completely united with tlie floor of the mouth. Vomerine
teeth consisting of series of about six granules situated upon two ridges ;
these are separated on the median line of the ])alate, and are situated
between,- or slightly behind, the choanae. as in L. hochstetteri.

Fingers longer than in L. hochstetteri, the first shorter than the second :
eacli palm with a large inner and a small outer metacarpal tubercle. The
tibio-tarsal articulation reaches the nostril when the hind leg is carried
forward along the side of the body. Toes longer than in L. hochstetteri,
webbed at the base ; a small, flat inner metatarsal tubercle is present.

Subarticular tulxn-clcs of fingers and toes distinct. The skin is nearly
everywhere smooth, though there are some scattered tubercles on the
proximal portions of the thighs and shanks. No omosternum ; sternum
(fig. 1) two slender diverging cartilaginous styles, and of similar forjuation
to L. hochstetteri (fig. 2) ; the left epicoracoid cartilage overlaps the right in
both Sjjecies. Dia|/ophyses of sacral vertebra (fig. 4) subcylindrical basally,
and slightly expanded distally. Short ribs articulate with the anterior
diapo]>liyses.

Colour. — Light brown in life, with irregular darker and lighter marbling
on the upper surfaces. A black band extends from the tip of the snout to
the nostril and thence to the eye ; it is continued backwards towards the
sides below the dorso-lateral ridge. The limbs are marked with oblique
black cross bands, which are most })rominent on the thighs. Under-
surfar-es with greyish mottlings.

The foregoing description is based upon a s[)ecimen 42 mm. long from
the snout to the vent ; it is the example figured in Plate XXX, and is
selected as the holotype. A second specimen about the same size, and
collected with the first, was dissected to examine the internal characters.

Variation. — Two other examples, received in alcohol, differ only in being
somewhat more iiniformly coloured, their black markings being more or
less obscure.

Identitif. — This sjjecies differs from L. hochstetteri not only in its more
slender form, but in having much longer fingers and toes, the webs of
which are more reduced than in that species. The tongue is narrower and
not so free posteriorly.

The holotvpe and paratype are deposited in the Dominion Museum,
Wellington.

Habitat. — Stephen Island, Cook Strait.

T am indebted to Dr. J. Allan Thomson for the privilege of describing
this iiit(>resting new s})ecies, which is named after its discoverer, Mr. Harold
Hamilton.

SUPPLEMEXTARY NOTE BY ChARLES HeDLEY, F.L.S., AUSTRALIAN MuSEUM.

This interesting addition to the fauna of New Zealand was discovered
by Mr. Harold Hamilton on Stephen Island, at the north-west extremity
of Cook Strait. This small island is also noteworthy as a refuge of the
tuatara, or Sphenodon. Dr. J. Allan Thomson subsequently visited the
island and obtained further material. After several days of fruitless
search, fourteen specimens were found crowded under a large heap of stones.
As it was in July, Dr. Thomson suggested that this party may liave been
hibernatino-. During the winter there are a few streams on the island,
but in summer all the surface water disappears. This suggested to
Dr. Thomson that jjossibly the LiopeJma is viviparous. On the other hand,

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI.

Plats XXX.

[Phyllis F. Clark del.

Ldopelma hamiltoni n. sp.

Face p. 448.]

McCuLLOCH. — New Discoglossoid Frog from New Zealand. 449

some interesting modifications in the development of this frog may occur,
such as is exhibited by the Australian Pseudophryne* of which the hatching
of the ova may be postponed for a period of at least three months when
dry conditions prevail.

According to A. S. Thomson,! L. hochstetteri also hides under stones.
He found that it was so rare and of such retiring (perhaps nocturnal)
habits that even the Maoris w^ere not acquainted with it. Possibly this
habit of close concealment was engendered by escaping from the voracity
of the moas.

The vertebrate fauna of New Zealand has always been regarded as one
of fascinating interest. At the first glance the poverty of reptiles and the
complete absence of mammals appear to indicate that New Zealand has
never held direct intercourse with any continent — that, in biological phrase.
New Zealand is " oceanic " rather than " continental." Such a conclu-
sion is, however, vigorously combated both by the fauna as a whole and
by the varied and well-developed flora. " No other country on the globe,"
wrote Wallace, " has such an extraordinary set of birds." And returning
to the reptiles, though the , brief records enumerate no snakes and only
one frog and fourteen lizards, yet the presence of the Sphenodon alone
confers on the New Zealand fauna a distinction lacking in many with a
far longer roll-call.

Thus the quality of the New Zealand reptilian fauna makes amends
for its quantity, and establishes the fact that land communication once
really did exist between it and the outside world. But the old fashion of
those few inhabitants implies that the date of such traffic was a remote
one. When large problems depend for their solution upon scanty data,
science is athirst for every drop of information, and so the discovery of
a second indigenous frog is of special interest.

The discoglossoid frogs form a small, compact group remarkable for
their primitive structure and for a disconnected distribution, discordant
with usual faunistic associations. StejnegerJ considers that their original
home was to the south-east of the Himalayas, and that in early Cretaceous
times the discoglossoids radiated thence to New Zealand, to western
America, and to western Europe. But central Asia can have had no
relations or direct communication with New Zealand. As the mass of the
Australian Amphibia arrived there from Sovith America via Antarctica,
it is now suggested that, whether originally Asiatic or Neotropical, Liopelma
had a similar history. Together both the frog faunas of Australia and
of New Zealand might have arisen in South America, both escaped by a
southern outlet^ — the one to New Zealand, the other to Australia — and
by the eastern door of " Arch-helenis " both may have been admitted to
the Mediterranean region by way of north-west Africa, and thence to Asia.
But the difference between the Discoglossidae of New Zealand on the one
hand and the Australian Hylidae and Cystignathidae on the other would
then imply that the different migrations flowed at different periods and
perhaps by different channels to New Zealand and to Tasmania respectivelv.

* J. J. Fletcher, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, vol. 2, p. 379, 1881».

t A. S. Thomson, Edinburgh Netv Philos. Journal, vol. 55, pp. 06-69, 1853.

X L. STB.JNEGER, Bidl. .Am. Geogr. Snr.. vol. 37. p. 9. 1905.

15— Trans.

450 Transactions.

Art. XL. — Terminology for Beak atid Foramina] Development in

Brachiopoda.

By S. S. BucKMAN, F.G.S.

Communicated by Dr. J. Allan Thomson.

[Publication authorized by the Publication Committee under Regulation 5, (a). (2) ; issued

separately, 26th Avr)ust.~\

The previous communication made by me on this subject, entitled " Termin-
ology for Foraminal Development in Terebratuloids (Brachiopoda)," which
appeared in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. 48, 1916,
pp. 130-32, seems to have provided terms which are found to be useful and
convenient. It has also received commendatory notice in Revue critique de
Paleozoologie, 1918, pp. 37-39, though the writer of the review has fallen
into an error which may be misleading. For these reasons I am tempted
to pursue the subject somewhat further.

The error committed by the writer in question is this : He says (p. 38),
" M. Buckmau a indique graphiquement la position du foramen circulaire
par rapport a la ligne de separation des valves." This is a complete
misunderstanding of the little diagram in my paper. The position of
the foramen is not indicated with regard to " the line of separation of the
valves," but in regard to the line of the beak-ridges {la ligne des carenes
laterales du crocket) — quite a different matter. The line of the beak-ridges
is the convenient and necessary datum-line for the jiurpose, and it is this
line which is represented by the horizontal lines in my diagram. This line
of the beak-ridges separates a more or less defined area, the pseudo-area
or cardinal area of the ventral valve.

There is another little matter for notice in this quotation. The circular
foramen is not a necessity in regard to these terms. That the foramen was
indicated by a circle was only a matter for convenience in printing. The
position of the foramen is one observation ; the shape of the foramen is
another — quite distinct ; and the condition of the foramen is a third.
These must be kept separate, for all sorts of combinations are possible.

The shape and some of the developmental phases of the foramen come
under the terms " trigonal," '' subtrigonal," " elliptical," '' circular," and
so forth — see my memoir, "The Brachiopoda of the Namyau Beds,"
Palaeontologia Indica, n.s., vol. 3, part 2, 1917 (1918) ; but other
terms, like " obtrigonal,"* " oblong," '' trapezoid," &c., will be required.
The condition of the foramen I have described by such terms as " telate, '
" marginate," " auriculatc," " attrite," '^ labiate/' '■ renovate." Some of
these conditions are found only with the hypothyrid position, others belong
to the mesothyrid in the main or to the epithyrid. Particulars are given
in the work above quoted under the headings of " Ehynchonellidae " and
" Terebratulidae," but I am unable to cite the page-numbers, as the only
copy which has yet reached me is at the binder's.

Returning now to the position of the foramen, it may be desirable to
have terms by which to indicate its position in regard to the line of the

* With apex pointing anteriorly.

BuCKMAN. — Terniinnlorin for Brachiopoda. 451

valve-junction ; but before proposing these it is advisable to consider the
general course of development which has led to the specialized foramen of
the Telotremata : it is to such foramens that the various terms hitherto
proposed apply.

(1.) The pedicle-opening or delthyrium is unmodified, and is there-
fore in area coextensive with what may be called an o])ening or
foramen.

(2.) Tlie pedicle-opening is modified by the growth of various plates, so
that the area of the foramen is less than the area of the delthyrium.

(3.) The pedicle-opening moves, as new test is deposited, away from the
apex towards the posterior margin, and the abandoned track is
closed by a plate called a " listrium " (Discinacea).

(4.) The pedicle-opening moves in the opposite direction, out of the
delthyrial area, by the pedicle gradually absorbing the apex.
This is the development found in submesothyrid to epithyrid
Telotremata.

Now, as the modifications of the foramen take the form of constricting
the area or a shifting of position, it may be seen that the terms " Neo-
tremata," and so forth, which suggest something bored out, are not
altogether appropriate. Only in the last case, where old test is removed,
is there anything like the process of boring. Closing up a space so as to
reduce a hole is something quite distinct from boring out. However, that
point is not for consideration now.* What has to be dealt with is what
may be called the character of the foramen.

When the foramen and the delthyrium correspond the foramen might
be said to be delthyrid in character. When the foramen is less in area than
the delthyrium, by the growth of various plates which modify the delthyrial
opening, then the term constricted foramen seems appropriate. When the
foramen is shifting or has shifted its position more or less out of the
delthyrial area, then the foramen is in its character migrcmt or migrate., as
the case might be. The mesothyrid Telotremata have migrant foramens,
and the epithyrid, migrate. When the foramen moves as new territory
is developed it may well be called emigrant, and when it goes to take up old
territory — the Terebratuloids — it could quite well be said to be immigrant.

Using the term " foramen/' therefore, in the above general sense as
the pedicle-opening, which in character may be unmodified, modified, or
migratory, it is necessary to define its position with regard to the line
of the valve-junction. It is situated in the ventral valve, and the obvious
term would be

Gastrothyrid {yaa-Trjp, belly). All the position-terms, " hypothyrid,"
" mesothyrid," " epithyrid," relate to and are more precise locations of the
foramen in gastrothyrid Brachiopoda.

If the foramen were situated in the dorsal valve, then the term would be

Notothyrid (vtoios, back). I know no such case ; but according to
the statement in the review above noticed the hypothyrid position would
be notothyrid. It is, however, gastrothyrid, and hypothyrid because under
the apex.

Then there are cases in which the foramen is situated at the junction
of the two valves, part of the foramen being in each valve. For this it is
not so easy to obtain a suitable term, but I would suggest

* It miglit be suggested, however, that " Eotremata " would be preferable to
" Atremata." understanding Tpr}/j.a in the .sense of opening.

15*

452 Transactions.

Symbolothyrid (from crvfxfSoXi], the part that meets, the joiuing, the
end).* Symbolothyrid is the foraminal position in many Atremata, in
early forms of the Telotremata, and is also found in Plafystrophia.
" Coenothyrid " (from Kutrds, shared in common) also suggests itself, but
would have to be rejected to prevent confusion with Coenothyris . it
would be inadvisable to have to say that Coenothyris was not coenothyrid
but gastrothyrid. In regard to the symbolothyrid foramen there is the
possibility of its greater portion being in one valve and the lesser part in
the other. Such cases could be described as symbolothyrid inclining to
gastrothyrid or to notothyrid, as the case might be.

Some special developments in the structure and conditions of the foramen
now seem to merit distinctive terms. Tlie foramen is in the form of a tul)e
extending into the valve : the shell is therefore

Siphonothyrid (frt^wr, a tube), as in the Si]>lionotretidae and in
Syringotkyris. A siphonothyrid shell is to be distinguished from one in
which the whole beak projects forwards as a little tube well separated
from the dorsal umbo. This is a case of a tubular beak, and is found, for
instance, in Terebratula wrighti Davidson, of the Bajocian, to which I have
given the generic name Tubithyris.'f A greater developnient still of the
tubular beak is seen in Lyra meadi {Terebrirostra), where the beak is
produced into a long pipe. This may be termed a fistulale rostrum or beak
{fistula, a pipe). It is the whole beak which is under observation, not
merely the foramen ; that, I expect, is e])ithyrid attrite, but I have no
example of this interesting and rare shell.

Cryptothyrid (kputtto?, hidden) is a term now suggested to denote a
foramen hidden or concealed by the beak, as in the case of Athyris, whicli
originally obtained its name (a, not; ^upt?, foramen [window]) because it
was supposed that it lacked a foramen. It is quite jiossible that the
pedicle was almost functionless.

In Productus the pedicle certainly was functionless, the foramen being
more or less sealed up, the animal having no need to use the pedicle, as it
could anchor itself by its long spines. For this condition the term

Clistothyrid (K-Acto-rd?, shut up) seems suitable. 1 would prefer to write
it " cleistothyrid," to signify that the first / is to ])e [n'onounced long,
but such is not the rule that has been laid down.

I am under the impression that a minute Rhynchonellu of the Upper
Inferior Oolite to which I have given the name NannrrhynchiaX is clisto-
thyrid. The foramen seems to be closed, but ol)servation in regard to this
feature of so small a shell is difficult. This tiny shell has a hirsute test,
sufficient, perhaps, to anchor so small an object.

A further development of the clistothyrid condition is when the foramen
is not only closed with calcareous matter, but the shell is cemented down
to the object of attachment. For this the term

Calcithyrid (calx, lime) seems obvious. Objections to it as a barl>arism
are sure to be made ; but they neglect the fact that a word is for use first

* I have already proposed for this position of the foramen the term amphithi/rid
(Brachiopoda, Australian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-14, Scientific Reports, ser. C, vol. 4,
pt. 3, p. 20, 1918). ]\Ir. Buckman, who has seen the manuscript of my paper, but
is apparently unaware that it is published, writes that the name is not as happy
as it might be, as the Greek aiJ.(pLdvpos means " with door or both sides, a double
entrance," suggesting a foramen in each valve. As there is no definite law of prioritj'
in such terms, it is preferable to use symbolothyrid. — J. All.\n Thomsox, 25/6/19.

f Records Geol. Surv. India, vol. 45, p. 78. 1915.

j Gen. -Jur. Brachiopoda, p. 2, 1914.

BuCKMAN. — T erminology for Brachiopoda. +53

and for ornament afterwards. It is sure to be said tliat one siiould take
the Greek word of similar meaning — x^'^'^ — ^^^ write " chalicotliyrid " ;
but I am not in favour of this far more cumbrous and less obvious word.
The Craniidae, Thecidiidae, and Richthofenidae are some of the cemented
shells and are therefore calcithyrid. If it is urged that the development
in the last-named is so much greater that it deserves distinction, then I
make it a present of '' chalicothyrid " : it does seem rather to suit that
family.

The above terms would seem to provide a ready means of describing
some important aspects of beak and foraminal development. But there
is a further case to be considered — the position of the foramen in shells
which have considerable development of the cardinal area or its homologue
the false cardinal area. Two terms for what is reallv the same feature
are very unsatisfactory. There is some objection to calling this feature
simply '' the area," for that term is rec[uirecl for general use; but it might
be termed the iitlerarea, as being the area lying between the apex and
the posterior line of valve-junction — the cardinal margin when there is a
hinge, but at any rate the posterior margin When there is lateral com-
pression posteriorly by which areas are formed each side of the beak- -
shown, for instanc<\ so well in EhynclioneUa plicafella — then the term
" areola," which is in use, seems unsuitable ; for it is larger, not, as its
name suggests, smaller, than the cardinal area. The term planarea seems
advisable. There would thus be the interarea and the ])lanareas ; but the
presence of the one would, I think, prevent the other appearing in the same
shell : at least, the former is merged in the planareas.

With great development of the interarea the term '" liy[)othyrid " for
the position of a foramen in the interarea might not be sufficiently precise.
It could be modified as "apically," "medianly," or " marginallv " hvpo-
thyrid, as the case might be.

Mention of the apical position suggests that it is desirable to distinguish
the rostrate shells which keep the apex and those which lose it : the
former, like the Rhynchonellidae, would be shells with rostrum apicate ;
the latter, like Terebratuloids, with rostrum truncate. It has been iLsual
to speak of the foramen as being truncate ; but this is mainly from
a consideration of the attrite foramen of the Terebratulids. But the
attrite condition is expressive of the wearing-away of the tela — the points
of the beak-ridges ; and so it seems advisable to apply the term
" truncate " to the rostrum as soon as the apex is excavated by the
pedicle. The angle and the degree of such truncation, especially when
combined with attrition, may vary very considerably — obviously through
nearly 180 degrees. To meet such cases " subtruncate " or " undercut,"
" vertically," " obliquely," and " horizontally " truncate might suffice for
general purposes. Words compounded of in and re are to be avoided ;
for properly the latter should apply to what goes backwards — that is,
towards the dorsal valve. Too often the former has been used for such
cases — the legacy of old teaching. Peccavi!

One other point is for consideration. When the pedicle has eaten
through the apex and has attained the epithyrid position, or even before,
it seems to have a tendency to return — to move back towards the dorsal
valve again : it may be said to be in character remigmnt. In such case
it produces a labiate foramen with some recutting of the dorsal wall of
the foramen. In such recutting points might be produced which resemble
tela but are not true ends of beak-ridges, only projecting edges of foraminal

454 Transactions.

riiu : if so, they should be termed pseudotela, and the foramen would be
pseudotelate. Further investigation of this matter is required, and perhaps
may best be undertaken by those who have the opportunity to obtain
and study fresh Recent specimens. With such material at hand notice
might be taken of the part played by the pedicle in depositing test in the
foramen. In the inside of the labium :)f fossil Terebratulids with labiate
foramen may be found a tongue-shaped layer of test which one supposes
to have been deposited by the pedicle : if so, this should merit distinction
as the pedicle- plate, to be looked for in connection with a remigrant
foramen. Then the question comes whether similar secretion by the
pedicle has played any part in the fusing of the deltidial plates. To the
fused deltidial plates as shown by Terebratulids I have given, in the
memoir already mentioned, the name of symphytimn, from the likeness to
the closing-up of a wound. In some well-preserved epithyrid Terebratulids
the middle area of the symphytium seems to be distinct, with very con-
siderable resemblance to the pedicle-plate. And in some shells the
sym|)hytium seems to be composed entirely of this middle piece. Now,
there arises the suspicion that this middle piece has been laid down at
first in between, and later on the foraminal edge of, the coalescing
deltidial plates. For if there was simple coalescence of the deltidial plates,
growing together from the edges of the delthyrium, as they certainly
do in liypothyrid Rhynchonellids with concrete deltidial plates, then the
lines of growth should run longitudinally, more or less parallel with the
diverging edges of the delthyrium. But in the piece under consideration
the lines of growth appear as transverse rugosities — the transverse direction
being what would be expected from deposition by the pedicle, and the
rugosities being connected with the swelling and attenuation of the pedicle
under muscular stimulus — connected possibly with periodical variations of
marine conditions.

Now, if such arguments be correct, the symphytium — the final closing
of the deltidial plates — in epithyrid shells is to be distinguished altogether
from the conjunct or concrete deltidial plates of hypothyrid shells. One
should find, perhaps, in mesothyrid shells concrete deltidial jilates united
near the cardinal margin, but separated medianly (that is, the part nearer
the apex), and, lying in this separation, the beginning of the symphytium
with its transverse rugosities ; and in epithyrid shells, a later develop-
ment, perhaps only the symphytium, margined possibly by a relic of the
deltidial plates.

To observe these details in fossil shells means much excavation, with
results not always satisfactory, on account of defective preservation. One
may hope that those who have the opportunity to examine Recent
epithyrid shells may be abh' to supply further details.

P R O C; E E D I N (1 B .

45-

PKOCEEDINGS

OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

MINI TE8 OF THE SIXTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING
OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS.

Wellington, 17th January, 1919.

The annual meeting of the Board of Governors was held in the JJoniinion
Museum on Friday, the 17th January, 1919, at 10 a.m.

Present : Professor Kirk (in the chair), Mr. Aston, Mr. C. A. Ewen,
and Mr. E. J. Parr.

Poverty Baij Institute. -An application from the Poverty Bay Institute
for incorporation with the New Zeahand Institute, dated the 18th De-
cember, 1918, was received ; and, on the motion of Mr. Ewen, seconded
by Professor Kirk, it was resolved. That the Poverty Bay Institute having
compUed with the requirements of the New Zealand Institute Act and
Regulations, and having applied for incorporation with the New Zealand
Institute, their application is hereby granted.

Adjournment to Chiistchurch. — On the motion of Mr. Parr, it was
resolved to adjourn the meeting to Christchurch on the 1st February, 1919,
at 10 a.m., the place of meeting to be Canterbury College.

Christchurch, 1st and 3rd February, 1919.

The adjourned annual meeting of the Board of Governors was held in
Canterbury College, Christchurch, on Saturday, th':- 1st February, 1919, at
10 a.m.

Present : Dr. L. Cockayne, President (in the chair) ; Hon. G. W.
Russell (Minister of Internal Affairs), Mr. B. C. Aston, Mr. L. Birks, Pro-
fessor C. Chilton, Professor T. H. Easterfield, Mr. M. A. Eliott, Dr. F. W
Hilgendorf, Mr. H. Hill, Professor H. B. Kirk, Professor H. W. Segar,
Professor A. P. W. Thomas, Hon. G. M. Thomson, Dr. J. A. Thomson.

Professor C. C. Farr, Dr. C. Chilton, and Mr. L. Birks on behalf of the
Canterbury Philosophical Institute welcomed the members of the Board to
Christchurch.

Apologies for non-attendance were read from Mr. C. A. Ewen (Hon.
Treasurer), Mr. E. J. Parr, and Dr. P. Marshall.

The Secretary announced that the only change in the representation
was that Professor T. H. Easterfield replaced Mr. G. Hogben as a repre-
sentative of the Wellington Philosophical Society, Mr. Hogben having
resigned. The Government representatives, Professor Chilton and Mr. Ewen,
who retired this year, had been re-elected.

The minutes of the previous meeting, held on the 17th January, 1919,
in Wellington, were read.

458 Proceedings.

Povert)/ Bat/ Institute. — The application of the Poverty Bay Institute,
dated the 18th December. 1918, for incorporation with the New Zealand
Institute being granted, on the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded by
Mr. H. Hill, it was resolved, That the certificate of incorporation of the
Poverty Bay Institute be signed by the President and the Hon. Secretary.
It was then sealed and signed.

't-*

The Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs, Mr. G. W. Russell, then
addressed the meeting, and promised to increase the annual grant for the
current year to the New Zealand Institute by £500, and bring in legislation
to increase the statutory grant to £1,000 per annum. Dr. Cockayne thanked
the Hon. tht^ Minister, and, on the motion of Dr. J. A. Thomson, seconded
by Mr. H. Hill, it was resolved. That a hearty vote of thanks be accorded
to the Hon. Mr. Russell for his speech and for his promise of further
financial support to the Institute. In order that the Hon. the Minister
might take ])art in the discussion, Professor Kirk's motion was now taken.
Professor Kirk moved, and Professor Easterfield seconded, That the Insti-
tute express to the Minister of Internal Affairs its regret that he has, in a
recent instance, vetoed its well-considered advice in respect to an allocation
from the research grant, giving no reason for the veto ; that it requests
that the right of veto shall in future not be exercised without stated reason,
and, if the Institute desire it. without discussion between the Minister and
the representatives of the Institute ; and that, if this request of the Institute
be not granted, tlie Institute nmst reluctantly leave it to the Minister to
administer the research grant without its advice, unless in some special matter
he wishes it for his guidance.

The Hon. the Minister promised that in future, where the veto was
exercised, reasons would be given, and the motion was withdrawn.

The meeting adjourned at 12.30 p.m. until 2 p.m.

Incorporated Societies' Reports and Bala i tee-sheets were laid upon the
table. No reports had been received from the Nelson Institute, the
Wangauui Philosophical Society, or from the Hawke's Bay Philosophical
Institute.

Standing Committee's Report. — The report of the Standing Committee
was read and adopted.

Report of thk .Standing Committee for 1918.

Xine meotiugs of tlic Standing Committee have been iield during the year 1918,
the attendance being as follows : Dr. Cockayne, 7 ; Dr. J. A. Thomson, 6 ; Mr. Ewen, 7 ;
Mr. Hogben, 7 ; Professor Kirk, 6 ; Mr." Parr, :} ; Hon. G. M. Thomson, 2 ; Mr.
Aston, 9 ; Messrs. Benham, Hilgendorf, Birks, Eliott. Hill, Marshall, Segar, and
Thomas, 1 each.

Hector Memorial Award. — The High Commissioner for A^ew Zealand, under date of
Gth August, 1918, notified the Under-Secretary for Internal Affairs that at the request
of Sir E. Rutherford, and with the consent of the Standing Committee, the 191fi medal
was presented to him privatelj' on the 2.5th July, 1918.

The 1918 medal, awarded to Mr. T. F. Choeseman, of Aucklaml, was presented
to him publicl}- on the 10th June, 1918, b\' the Mayor of Auckland, Mr. J. H. Gunson,
at the ojjening lecture of the Auckland Institute's session.

Supply of Medals. — A further supply of twelve medals has been received from
Messrs. Wyon. These are not quite the same as the old medal, being struck on thicker
metal of apparently a different composition.

War Boll of Huiiour. — The collection of data from tlie incorporated societies foi-
the preparation of a Roll of Honour has been continued b}- the Hon. Secretary.

Volume 49, Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, for the year 1916, was laid
upon the tables of the House of Representatives and of the Legislative Council on the
loth April, 1918.

Vohrine 50, Tratts<icAit>ns of t/ic New Zealand Institute, for the year 1917, was
issued on the loth -July, 1918, and distributed in bulk direct to the incorporated

Sixteenth Annual Meetinf/. 459

societies by the Government Printer. A copy was laid on tlic table of the House of
Representatives on the 29th October, 1918, and on the table of the Legislative Council
on the 30th October, 1918.

Publications. — It has been decided to present as complete a set as possible of the
Transactions of the New Zealand Institute to the Cawthron Institute, and to place the
library on the mailing-list of the Institute.

A number of observatories, at the New Zealand Government Astronomer's request,
have been supplied by the New Zealand Institute with volumes of the Transactions
which contain papers b}* Professor Bickerton.

The following have been placed on the mailing-hst and an exchange of publica-
tions arranged : —

Societe de Chimie Industrielle.
Athenaeum Subject Index to Periodicals.
Commonwealth Advisory Council of Science and Industry.
University of California (certain departments only).
Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.
Department of Agriculture, Wellington.

Partial sets of Transactions have been presented to the Ashburton High School,
and to the Department of Agriculture, Wellington.

Resolutions of the Staiiding Committee not othei-wise mentioned in this report aic
as follows : —

Banking Account : That Dr. J. A. Thomson be authorized to sign cheques in place
of Professor Easterfield, who was then no longer a member of the Board.

Carter Bequest : That the Public Trustee be autliorized to sell the New Zealand
Loan and Mercantile Agency Company's stock.

Science Congress at Christchurch : That it is tlesirable that the Philosophical
Institute of Canterbury should take over the whole management of the Congress.

Date of Annual Meeting : That all Governors be informed that the annual meeting
is called for the 17th January, 1919, at Wellington, but that those not living in Wel-
lington need not attend ; and that, in accordance with the agreement amongst the
Governors at the last annual meeting, the meeting will be adjourned from AVellington
to Christchurch on the 1st February, 1919.

Jubilee of the Institute : That owing to the war the Institute postpone any recog-
nition of the Jubilee until a more convenient season.

National Efficiency. — On the 12th March, 1918, the Standing Committee asked the
Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs for information concerning the report of the New
Zealand Institute's Scientific and Industrial Research Committee, which that com-
mittee had sent to the National Eificiency Board, and asked whether the committee
set up by the New Zealand Institute in conjunction with the Director of the Dominion
Museum could now proceed with the proposed census of industries in terms of the
resolution sent him on the 11th January, 1918, which was as follows: "That the
committee, having heard that the Hon. the Minister is prepared to take steps at an early
date to inaugurate a Dominion scheme of scientific and industrial research by making
a preUminary census of past research, actual problems of industry awaiting solution,
and of available laboratories and research workers, advises that the Director of the
Dominion Museum should undertake such census, being supplied by the Minister with
specially qualified assistance, and that a committee of the New Zealand Institute should
co-operate with him.''

The Hon. the Minister, under date 24th April, 1918, replied that Cabinet had con-
sidered the report of the National Efficiency Board on the subject, and it had been
decided to circulate this report among Ministers for their consideration, and promised
to communicate again with the Institute in the matter.

Annual Rejmrts and Balance-sheets of the following incorporated societies have
been received and are now laid on the table : -

Auckland Institute, to 20th February, 1918.

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, to 31st October, 1918.

Otago Institute, to 30th Nov(miber,^19I8.

Manawatu Pliilosophieal Society, to 31st October, 1918.

Wellington l'hil()Sf)phical Society, to 30th September, 1918.

Census of Industries. — On the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded by the
Hon. G. M. Thomson, it was resolved, That the Hon. the Minister of Internal
Affairs be asked whether he can now make the further communication on
the matter of the census of industries, referred to in the Standing Com-
mittee's report under the heading " National Efficiency."

On the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded by Mr. Eliott, it was
resolved, That the Institute depute the President, Professor Easterfield,
and Dr. J. A. Thomson to give evidence before the Parliamentary Committee
on Science and Industry.

460

Proceedings.

Hon. Treasurer's Reports. — In the absence of the Hon. Treasurer, the
Hon. Secretary moved, and Professor Kirk seconded, That the Hon.
Treasurer's reports, duly audited by the Auditor-General, be adopted.
Carried.

The Public Trustee's Reports on the Carter Bequest, the Hutton Memorial
Fund, and the Hector Memorial Fund for the year ending 31st December,
1918, were adopted.

New Zealand Institute. — Statement of Receipts and Expenditure for the

Year ending 31 st December, 1918.

Receipts.
Balance at 31 st December,

1917 ..
Post Office Savings - bank

interest to 31 st December,

1918 ..

Government statutoi-y grant

Publications sold . .

Affiliated societies' levy. 1 91 7

Affiliated societies' levy, I 91 S

Government grant for re-
search work

Government grant for re-
search work, 20tli Decem-
ber

Endowment Fund deposit in
Post Office Savings-bank

£

s.

d.

Expenditure.

£

8. d.

Government Printer

757

8 6

418

17

10

Expenses, annual meeting . .
Fire-insurance premiimi on

38

19 1

library, £1 ,500 . .

5

0 0

3

5

4

Bank charges and cheque-

500

0

0

book . .

1

0 0

50

1

5

Secretary's expenses, post-

u kj

114

3

0

age, stationery, and clerical

■ fc*

89

8

3

work . .
New Zealand Express Com-

31

16^6

330

0

0

pany, Chicago . .
Research grant to Professor

3

13 6

Evans

200

0 0

30

0

0

Research grant to Professor

Malcolm

30

0 0

4

18

1

Research grant to Professor

Easterfield

50

0 0

Research grant to Dr. Chilton

50

0 0

Balance as under

£1,540 13 11

1,167 17 7
372 16 4

£1,540 13 11

Balance in —

Bank of New Zealand
Post Office Savings-bank

£ s. d.

330 18 4

41 18 0

£372 16 4

New Zealand Institute. — Statement of Liabilities and Assets at 31 st December,

1918.

Hector Memorial Fund in hands of Public Trustee and

per contra
Hutton Memorial Fund in hands of Public Trustee and

per contra
Carter Bequest in hands of Public Trustee and per contra
Special grants for research work on hand
Government Printer's account
Balance Endowment Fund Account
Levies for 1 91 8 unpaid
Authors" copies and books sold
Balance at Bank of New Zealand, Wellington
Balance at Post Offic(^ Savings-bank, Wellington
Balance

To balance . .

Against tliis debit balance the Institute has a large stock of Transactions for sale,
find possesses a vcrj' valuable library.

Liabilitt

'es.

A ssets.

£ s.

d.

£ 8.

d.

1,067 19

9

1,067 19

9

826 6

11

826 6

11

4,342 5

4

4,342 5

4

75 0

0

. ,

547 12

6

, ,

4 18

1

3 7

6

4 15

9

330 18

4

41 18

0

246 11

0

£6,864 2

7

£6,864 2

i

£246 11

0

Sixteenth Annual Meeting. 461

Hbctor Mf.mortai- Fund. — Statement of Account for the Year ending 31st

December, 1918.

Dr. Cr.

£ s. d. £ 8. d.

By Balance brou£;ht forward .. .. .. .. 1,106 13 9

Public Trust Office —

Interest to 31st December, 1918, at £ s. d.
4.1 per cent. .. .. . . 46 10 1

Bonus interest to 31st March, 1 918 . . 4 15 11

.. 51 6 0

To New Zealand Institute Account —

Professor C. Chilton. Hector Prize for

1917 .. .. .. .. 45 0 0

Mr. T. F. Cheeseinan, Hector Prize for 45 0 0

1916 . . . . . . . . 90 0 0

To Balance .. .. .. .. .. 1,067 19 9

£1,157 19 9 £1,157 19 9

By Balance .. .. .. .. .. .. £1,067 19 9

Mutton Memorial Fund.— Statement of Account fob the Year ending 31 st

December, 1918.

Dr. Cr.

£ s. d. £ s. d.

By Balance brought forward . . . . . . . . 787 11 5

Public Trust Office-
Interest to 31st December, 1918, at £ s. d.
4^ per cent. . . . . . . 35 8 0

Bonus interest to 31 St March. 1918 .. 3 7 6

.. 38 15 6

To Balance . . . . . . . . . . 826 6 1 1

£826 6 11 £826 6 11

By Balance .. .. .. .. .. .. £826 6 11

Cabter Bequest. — Statement of Account for the Year ending 31st December,

1918.

Residuari/ Account .
By Balance brought forward
Public Trust Office-
Interest to 31st December, 1918, at £ s. d.
4^ per cent. . . . . . . 186 0 7

Bonus to 3l8t March, 1918 . . . . 17 18 10

203 19 5

Dr.

Cr.

s. d.

£ s. d.

. .

4,138 5 11

To Balance .. .. .. .. .. 4,342 5 4

By Balance

A.ssets.
Balance as per account

Shares — New Zealand Loan and Mercantile Agency
Company (Limited) —
First mortgage debenture stock
Second mortgage debenture stock
Second preference debentures . .
Second ordinarv- debentures

Liabiliti^.
Legacy — Museiun and New Zealand Institute
Balance Trustee's commission

£4,342 5 4 £4,342 5 4

£4

,342
£

5 4
s. d.

4

,342

5 4

£

s.

d.

10

0

0

4

0

0

3

10

0

1

10

0

19

0 0

£

s. d.

50

0 0

At scale

rates.

462 Proceedings.

Finatwial Position of the Institute. — The President detailed the steps he
had taken to bring before the Hon. the Minister the state of the Institute's
finances. On the motion of Mr. Hill, seconded by Mr. Eliott, it was resolved,
That for every copy of volume 51 of the Transactions received by the
incorporated societies a contribution of 2s. 6d. towards the cost of printing
shall be made during the current year by such society.

Hutton Fund Grants. — The Hon. G. M. Thomson made a statement
concerning the Portobello Fish-hatchery. x\n account of the work, which
was assisted by a grant from the Hutton Fund in 1916, will be published in
a pamphlet entitled " A History of the Portobello Fish-hatchery," to appear
shortly.

Research Grant Committee's Rejjorts. — On the motion of Professor Easter-
field, seconded by Mr. Aston, the report was received.

Report of the Research Grant Committee.

(Professor Easterfield, Mr. G. Hogben, and Mr. B. C. Aston.)

(For previous reports see Trans. N.Z. In.st., vol. 49, p. 580, and vol. oO. p. 333.)

Reports from the grantees have been received as follows : —

Mr. L. P. SymC''', who was in 1916 granted £.50, through the Philosophical Institute
of Canterbury, for investigating the decay of apples and other fruits in cold storage,
reported on the 23rd December, 1918, that little progress had been made and no portion
of the vote had yet been expended. Grantee asks that the grant may be continued
for another year.

Mr. L. Birks, to whom £10 had been granted in 1916, through the Philosophical
Institute of Canterbury, for investigating the electrical prevention of frosts in orchards,
reported on the 4th February, 1918, that none of the grant had then been expended,
but suggested that it be increased by £20 from the current year's vote, and subsequently,
on the 15th March, he asked for £30 additional. The matter was referred to a referee,
and on receiving his report the Standing Committee resolved to ask the Philosophical
Institute of Canterbury for further information. This not being forthcoining. the miittei
is in abeyance. Mr. Birks reported on the 30th December, 1918, that he regretted
owing to the shortage of staff it has again been impossible to do anything this yea.r.
but hoped to be able to detail an officer for the work next season.

Messrs. R. Speight and L. J. Wild, to whom £50 was granted in 1916, through the
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, for investigation of the phosphatic limestones
of Canterbury, on the 16th August, 1918. reported fully on the results of their work.
Although this is reasonably complete and not likely to be modified by subsequent
research, the grantees proposed to continue the investigation later in the year as occasion
offers, and they are therefore retaining some £14, unexpended balance of the grant,
reporting additional results when obtained.

Professor H. B. Kirk, to whom £25 was granted in 1917, through the Wellington
Philosophical Society, for investigating methods of killing mosquitoes and larvae,
reported on the 30th December, 1918, that he had continued this work, and gave a
progress report of the results so far obtained. These confirmed the conclusions pre-
viously reported as to the value of light tar-oil as a larvicide. His statement of expenses
showed that £9 lis. 3d. had been expended in travelling-expenses.

Messrs. La Trobe and Adams, to whom £.50 was granted in 1917, through the
Wellington Philosophical Society, towards the construction of a tide-predicting machine,
reported on the 12th December, 1917, having spent £64 Is. 6d., and applied for a further
grant of £75. The Standing Committee referred the matter to a sub-committee con-
sisting of Mr. G. Hogben and Professor Sommerville, and they having reported favour-
ably on the work already accomplished towards the construction of the machine, the
Standing Committee granted the application. The Hon. the Minister, under the term.s
controlling the issue of Government research grants (see Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49,
p. 326), however, withheld his sanction, and no payment could therefore be made.

Professor Jack, to whom £25 was granted in 1917, through the Otago Institute,
for investigating the electric charge on rain, reported on the -3rd December, 1918, that
he had not been able, owing to stress of work caused bj' war conditions, to take over
.the grant, and asked that it may be paid to him in February next.

Sixteenth Annual Meeting. 463

Projesvor \\ . P. Enins, tt) whom t2U() was granted in 1918, througli the Philo-
sophical Institute of Canterbury, for investigating New Zealand brown coals, reported
on the 24th December, 1918, that only preliminary work on a very small scale had betn
possible owing to the difficulty in obtaining apparatus and assistance. An experienced
assistant, at £250 per annum for two years from the 1st February, 1919, had now been
secured, who would give his whole time to the work. No payments out of the grant
had been made, but fractionating apparatus to cost £58 had been ordered and should
shortlj- arrive from London. The Board of Governors of Canterbury College had added
£100 to this grant for the j^ear 1919, and had promised additional £150 for 1920.
(irantee requested that the grant of £200 might be carried on to 1919.

Projessor C. Chilton, to whom £50 was granted in 1918, through the Philosophical
Institute of Canterbury, for investigating New Zealand flax (phorniiuni), on the 31st
December, 1918, reported that although the grant had been made in his name the
investigations had been carried out by Mrs. B. D. Jennings, who had made considerable
progress, more particularly in the direction of starting observations and experiments
to test the cause of diseases affecting the flax, improved methods of cultivation, &c.
There had been a serious deterioration in the flax cro]) in some districts, involving losses
of such commercial value that further investigation was more necessary than ever.
Only £10 of the grant had been spent, but the grantee asked that the grant might be
continued for another year.

A more detailed re])ort has since been submitted (30th December, 1918) by Mrs.
Jennings, through Dr. Chilton, intimating that she has been engaged by the Flax-
millers' Association to investigate the yellow-leaf disease, on which she submits soBce
information.

Professor .John Malcohii, to wlioin £30 was granted in 1918, througli the Otago
Institute, reported on the 7th December, 1918, that, largely owing to having had this
"rant at his disposal, he had been enabled to send for jJublication in the Transactions
of the New Zealand Institute a short paper on tutu fruit and seed, and had made some
further progress with woik on pukateine. He asked that the subject of his investiga-
tions might be extended to include questions referring to the preservation of meat and
dairy produce. Grantee had spent £14 12s. on books, chemicals, experimental material,
and petty cash.

Professor T. H. Easterfield, to whom £50 was granted in 1918, through the Wel-
lington Philosophical Society, for investigating the wax content of New Zealand brown
coals, reported in January, 1919, that, owing to tjie temporary deprivation of his assistant
by illness, and the war, the investigation had not been commenced, neither had anj'
expense been inciirred. The grantee asks that the grant may be continued for another
year.

It will be noticed that in most cases the sums granted have not been expended.
In some cases the amounts have been lodged in a local savings-bank by the grantee to
his credit. In future it will be desirable that the sums be retained by the Institnte
until required, so that any interest may become its property.

One of the grants (for £20) which has been surrendered has been placed to the
credit of the New Zealand Institute, and it will be necessary to decide what to do with
this sum.

A discussion took place on the final clause of the report, dealing with
the disposal of the interest on the unexpended portion of grants. On the
motion of Mr. Eliott, seconded by Professor Segar, it was resolved, That
in future sums voted be retained by the New Zealand Institute and placed
in the Post-office Savings-bank or other approved investment until actually
required by the grantee, so that the New Zealand Institute receive the
benefit of any interest earned and hold it in trust for future research grants.
An amendment by Professor Chilton, seconded by Dr. Hilgendorf, that the
grants on allocation should be paid to the Treasurers of the societies
through which the applications were made, was lost.

On the motion of Dr. J. A. Thomson, seconded by Professor Thomas,
it was resolved, That the Government Research Grant Committee be in-
structed to amend the regulations for administering the research grant
by incorporating resolutions passed by the Board of Governors which aft'ect
the administration of the grants.

464 Proceedings.

On the motion of Mr. Eliott, seconded by Professor Kirk, it was resolved,
That the unexpended portions of all Government research grants be con-
tinued to the grantees for the coming year.

Hutton Research Grant. — An application from Miss Mestayer for a grant
of £10 towards work on New Zealand Mollusca was granted on the motion
of the Hon. G. M. Thomson, seconded by Professor Easterfield.

Hector Award Committee's Report. — The President then opened the
recommendation of the Hector Award Committee, which was to the effect
that the award should be made this year to Dr. P. W. Robertson. Professor
Easterfield, in moving the adoption of the report, gave the committee's
reasons for the selection of Dr. Eobertson. The motion was seconded by
Professor Segar and carried.

Puhlication Committee's Report. — The report of the Publication Com-
mittee was adopted on the motion of Dr. Cockayne, seconded by Dr. J. A.
Thomson. On the motion of Dr. Chilton, seconded by Dr. J. A. Thomson, it

was resolved, That the words " for the year " be omitted from the

title of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.

Report of Publication Committee.

Thirty-two paper.s were accepted for publication in vol. 50 of the Traumctiotts
oj the New Zealand Infititute, and the volume was issued on the loth July, 1918. It
contains xii + 392 pages (of which 68 are devoted to the Proceedings), 35 plates, and
numerous text-figures.

No bulletins were issued during the year.

A circular was sent out by the Editors to the Secretaries of the incorporated
societies requesting that the manuscripts of papers intended for pubhcation in the
Transactions should be sent forward as early as possible. A number of papers for
vol. 51, received early as a result of this request, are already in the hands of the Govern-
ment Printer, and we hope that the publication of the volume will thus be expedited.

As it seems desirable that papers read at the general meeting of the Institute, in
February, should be printed in the forthcoming volume (vol. 51), the committee
recommends that the volume be described as "for the year 1918-19," instead of
" for the year 1918," subsequent volumes to be for 1919-20, &c. Apart from the special
circumstance of the inclusion of papers read at the general meeting, this description
would be correct, as the volume always contains the report of the annual meeting of the
Board of Governors. It might help also to stop the practice of misquoting the dates
of volumes of the Transactions, which is almost universal in manuscripts submitted
for publication. For the Committee.

Leonard Cockayne, I tj tt..-,
C. A. Cotton, , ^°»- ^^^'^'

tors.

Catalogue of Fishes. — On the motion of the Hon. G. M. Thomson, seconded
by Professor Segar, it was resolved, That this meeting of the Board of
Governors re-urges upon the Government the necessity of preparing and
publishing a catalogue of New Zealand fishes as a work of national import-
ance, and that this work should be undertaken at as early a date as possible.

Library Committee^ s Report. — On the motion of Dr. J. A. Thomson,
seconded by Dr. Chilton, the report of the Library Committee was adopted.

Report of Library Com-^httee.

As no funds have been available for the purpose, little has been done in the
library beyond recciWng, registering, and placing on the shelves the incoining
periodicals. A list of the serial publications received by the library during 1917 was
prepared by a member of the Committee, and was printed in the Ap2Jcndix to the
Proceedings, vol. 50, pp. 381-85. For the Committee.

i'. A. Cottok.

Sixteenth Annual Meeting. 465

Correspondence. — The President read a letter from Mr. T. F. Cheeseman
wishing the Congress success. It was resolved that the President be
requested to write to Mr. T. F. Cheeseman congratulating him on his long
service with the Institute.

Indexing the Transactions. — A letter from the Philosophical Institute
of Canterbury, dated 30th August, 1918, concerning the indexing of the
Transactions was read, and, on the motion of Professor Easterfield, seconded
by Dr. Chilton, it was resolved. That the Standing Committee be instructed
to take steps to index the volumes 41 to 50 when funds permit.

British Science Guild. — A letter was read from the British Science Guild
(2/3/18) desiring that its objects should be brought under the notice of the
Institute. Received.

Resolutions passed at the Last Annual Meeting. — A letter from the Under-
Secretary, Internal Afi'airs Department (7/2/18), acknowledging the resolu-
tions concerning the Government passed at the last annual meeting, and
promising that they would receive attention, was received.

Hamilton Prize.~A letter from Mr. C. J. Tunks (30/8/18), making
certain suggestions regarding the Hamilton Prize, was, on the motion of
Professor Easterfield, seconded by Professor Thomas, referred to the Wel-
lington Philosophical Society.

Method of sending Papers to Editor for Publication. — A letter received
from the Canterbury Philosophical Institute (2/10/18), regarding the proper
procedure in dealing with papers for publication, was deferred until
Dr. Hilgendorf's motion was dealt with.

Fellows of the Institute. — The report of the Committee appointed to con-
sider the question of the proposed Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute
was, on the motion of Dr. Thomson, seconded by Dr. Cockayne, received,
and was considered clause by clause.

Report of the Committee appointed to bepoet on the Proposed Fellowship of

THE Institute.

(Dr. Cockayne (convener), Dr. J. A. Thomson, and Mr. Hogben.)

1. The FcIlowshijD of the New Zealand Institute shall be an honorary distinction
for the life of the holder.

2. The Original Fellows shall be twenty in number, and shall include the pa.st
Presidents and the Hutton and Hector Medallists. The remaining Original Fellows
shall be nominated as provided for in Rule 7 («), and shall be elected by the said past
Presidents and Hector and Hutton Medallists.

3. The total number of Fellows at any time shall not be m(ji-e than forty.

4. After the appointment and election of the Original Fellows, as provided in
Rule 2, not more than four Fellows shall be elected in any one year.

'y. The Fellowship shall be given in general for research or distinction in science,
or for eminent service to the nation in any capacity, provided that the total number
of Fellows elected under the last-named head shall not exceed one-tenth of the total
number of Fellows.

6. No person shall be elected as Fellow unless he is a British subject and has been
a member of one of the incorporated societies for three years immediately preceding
his election.

7. After the appointment and election of the Original Fellows, as pro\'ided in
llule 2, there shall be held an annual election of Fellows at such tinie as the Board of
Governors shall appoint. Such election shall bo determined as follows : — •

(a.) Each of the incorporated societies at Auckland, WelUngton, Christchurch, and
Dunedin may nominate not more than twice the number of persons as there
are vacancies to be filled. Each nomination must be accompanied by a full
statement of the qualifications of the candidate for Fellowshijj.

466 Proceedings.

(b.) Out of the persons so nominated the Fellows resident in New Zealand shall
select twice as many persons as there are vacancies, if so many be nominated.

(c.) The election shall bo made by the Board of Governors at the annual meeting.

('/.) The methods of election in clause (6) and of election in clause (c) shall be
determined by the Board of Governors.

Clause 1 : " The Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute shall be an
honorary distinction for the life of the holder." Adopted.

Clause 2 : " The Original Fellows shall be twenty in number, and shall
include the past Presidents and the Hutton and Hector Medallists. The
remaining Original Fellows shall be nominated as provided for in Rule 7 (a),
and shall be elected by the said past Presidents and Hector and Hutton
Medallists." A motion by Professor Thomas, seconded by Professor Segar,
that the number of Original Fellows be thirty in number, instead of twenty
as proposed, was lost. After the word " Medallists " where it first occurs, it
was resolved, on the motion of Professor Segar, seconded by Mr. Eliott, to
insert the words " who have held their distinctions and positions prior to the
3rd February, 1919, and who at that date are members of the New Zealand
Institute." The clause as amended was adopted.

Clause 3 : " The total number of Fellows at any time shall not be
more than forty." Adopted.

Clause 4 : " After the appointment and election of the Original Fellows,
as provided in Rule 2, not more than four Fellows shall be elected in any
one year." Adopted.

Clause 5 : " The Fellowship shall be given in general for research or
distinction in science, or for eminent service to the nation in any capacity,
provided that the total number of Fellows elected under the last-named
head shall not exceed one-tenth of the total number of Fellows." A
motion by the Hon. G. M. Thomson, seconded by Professor Thomas, that the
words " in general " and all words after the words " distinction in science "
be delected, was carried ; an amendment by Mr. L. Birks, seconded by
Professor Segar, of the addition thereafter of the words " or of eminent
services to the nation in the application of scientific principle " being lost.
Adopted as amended. ^

Clause 6 : " No person shall be elected as Fellow unless he is a British
subject and has been a member of one of the incorporated societies for
three years immediately preceding his election." Adopted.

Clause 7 : " After the appointment and election of the original Fellows,
as provided in Rule 2, there shall be held an annual election of Fellows at
such time as the Board of Governors shall appoint. Such election shall
be determined as follows : —

" (a.) Each of the incorporated societies at Auckland, Wellington,

Christchurch, and Dunedin may nominate not more than twice

the number of persons as there as vacancies to be filled. Each

nomination must be accompanied by a full statement of the

qualifications of the candidate for Fellowship."

It was explained by the President that by an oversight in drafting the

report the representation of the smaller societies had been omitted, and

therefore he accepted the addition, after the words " twice," of the words

'' as many persons as there are vacancies, and each of the other incorporated

societies may nominate as many persons as there are vacancies." With this

addition the clause was ado})ted.

At this stage the meeting adjourned until Monday morning at 10 a.m.

Sixteenth Annual Meeting. 467

The Board resumed on Monday, the 3rd February, at 10 a.m., there being
present Dr. Cockayne (President), Mr. Aston, Mr. Birks, Professor Chilton,
Mr. Eliott, Mr. Hill, Dr. Hilgendorf, Professor Kirk, Professor Segar, Hon.
G. M. Thomson, Dr. J. A. Thomson, and Professor Thomas.

Clause 7, subclause (fo) : " Out of the persons so nominated the Fellows
resident in New Zealand shall select twice as many persons as there are
vacancies, if so many be nominated." Adopted.

Subclause (c) : " The election shall be made by the Board of Governors
at the annual meeting." On the motion of Professor Segar, seconded by
Professor Thomas, the words " from the persons selected by the Fellows "
was added to the end of subclause (c). Adopted as amended.

Subclause [d) : " The methods of election in clause (b) and of election
in clause (c) shall be determined by the Board of Governors." The word
" selection " was on the voices inserted in placed of " election " where it
first occurs. Adopted as amended.

New subclause 7 (e) : On the motion of Dr. Hilgendorf, seconded by
Mr. Eliott, it was resolved. That the names of the nominees shall be
submitted to the Fellows at least six months, and the names selected
by them shall be submitted to the Governors at least three months, before
the date fixed for the annual meeting of the Board of Governors at which
the election is to take place. Adopted.

New clause 8 : On the motion of Professor Chilton, seconded by
Professor Easterfield, it was resolved. That the official abbreviation of the
title " Fellow of the New Zealand Institute " be " F.N. Z.Inst." Adopted.

The President then put the motion. That the regulations governing the
institution of the Fellowship of the Institute as amended be adopted.
The motion was carried, Mr. Hill dissenting.

The following are the regulations as adopted : —

Regulations govbrning the Fellowship of the Institute.

1. The Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute shall be an honorary distinction
for the life of the holder.

2. The Original Fellows shall be twenty in number, and shall include the past
Presidents and the Hutton and Hector Medallists who have held their distinctions
and positions jirior to the 3rd February, 1919, and who at that date are members of
the Institute. The remaining Original Fellows shall be nominated as provided for
in regulation 7 (a), and shall be elected by the said past Presidents and Hector and
Hutton Medallists.

3. The total number of Fellows at any time shall not be more than forty.

4. After the appointment and election of the Original Fellows, as provided in
Regulation 2, not more than four Fellows shall be elected in any one year.

5. The Fellowship shall be given for research or distinction in science.

6. No person shall be elected as Fellow unless he is a British subject and has been
a member of one of the incorporated societies for three years immediately proceeding
his election.

7. After the appointment and election of the Original Fellows, as provided in
Regulation 2, there shall be held an annual election of Fellows at such time as the
Board of Governors shall appoint. Such election shall be determined as follows : —

(a.) Each of the incorporated societies at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch,
and Dunedin may nominate not more than twice as many persons as
there are vacancies, and each of the other incorporated societies may
nominate as many persons as there are vacancies. Each nomination must
be accompanied by a statement of the qualifications of the candidate
for fellowship.

(6.) Out of the persons so nominated the Fellows resident in New Zealand shall
select twice as many persons as there are vacancies, if so many be
nominated.

(c.) The names of the nominees shall be submitted to the Fellows at least six
months, and the names selected by them submitted to the Governors at
least three months, before the date fixed for the annual meeting i<f the
Board of Governors at which the election is to take place.

468 Proceedings.

(d.) The election shall be made by the Board of Governors at the annual meeting

from the persons selected by the Fellows,
(e.) The methods of selection in subclause (6) and of election in subclause (d)

shall be determined by the Board of Governors.
8. The official abbreviation of the title " Fellow of the New Zealand Institute "'
shall be " F.N.Z.Tnst."

Dr. J. A. Thomson moved, Mr. Eliott seconded, and it was carried,
That Dr. L. Cockayne, Professor T. H. Easterfield, Professor C. Chilton,
and the Hon. G. M. Thomson, be a committee, with power to act, to
determine the method of election of the remaining Original Fellows and
to carry out the election.

On the motion of Mr. Eliott, seconded by Professor Thomas, it was
resolved, That the matter of bringing into operation the sections in clause 7
as adopted by the Board be left in the hands of the Standing Committee.

Report on Kapiti Island. — Professor Kirk read the joint report of Mr.
Bendall and himself on Kapiti Island, which had been received by the
Hon. Secretary too late to circulate. He rejjorted that the work had been
done by himself and Mr. Bendall, a member of the Council of the Manawatu
Philosophical Society, instead of Mr. Eliott, who was unable to visit the
island. On the motion of Mr. Eliott, seconded by Mr. Hill, it was resolved,
That the report of Professor Kirk and Mr. W. E. Bendall be adopted, and
printed in the Transactions and Proceedings, and that the authors be
thanked for their services in the matter.

Report on Kapiti Island as a Plant and Animal Sanctuary.

This report takes as a starting-i^oint Dr. Cockayne's " Report on a Botanical Survey
of Kapiti Island," presented to Parliament in 1907 by the late Hon. Dr. McNab, Minister
of Lands, and it deals especially with the extent to which the recommendations of tliat
report have been given effect to or have ajiparently been ignored.

Wild Sheep. — By far the most important and far-reacliing of the recommendations
referred to is that the whole island should be acquired by the Government, that being
the only means bj^ which it can bo hoped effectively to put a stop to the damage being
done by sheep belonging to Native owners. We do not find in Dr. Cockayne's report
a statement of the extent of the Native holdings in 1907. At present the Natives hold
about 644 acres. But they have far more sheep than their own holdings could support,
and the greater number of these are running wild over the island. It is safe to say
that not less than eight Jiundred of these sheep are running on the lands of the Crown.
It does not, jjerhaps, concern the Institute more than it does the community at large
that no rent is charged for this privilege, but so far as we can learn that is the fact.
Although the Natives have the right to muster over the whole island, the ilifficulties
of mustering on Kai^iti are so great that very many of these sheep have never been
docked or dagged, and it may be taken for granted that they have never been dipped.
Nearly all are carrying long, filthy dags ; very many have the wool torn more or less
completely from the back by the bushes. It would be hard to find anywhere else in
New Zealand sheep that present the marks of neglect more obviously. The point that
especially concerns the Institute is that these sheep, with the wild goats, arc setting
a limit to the life of the forest. Not only do they prevent to a very large extent the
growth of young trees, but they open up the forest to the sweep of the wind. They
prepare it for invasion by grass, tauhinu, manuka, and other hardy plants. Although
the manuka is one of the least objectionable of these invaders, yet in dry situations,
such as some of the spurs, where it harbours no moss or liverworts, very little humus
is formed, and that little is quickly washed away by rain. On some spurs — for example,
on one just south of Waterfall — where manuka has replaced the forest, much soil has
been removed, and in no great time the manuka itself will be miable to retain its footing.
Jn such cases the manuka marks a phase in the passage to utter barrenness.

Wild Goats. — As already intimated, wild goats share with the sheep the work of
destroying the original plant-covering. The caretaker, J\Ir. Bennett, has shot great
numbers of them, and their remains are to be found all over the Crown lands. The
thoroughness with which this work is being done impressed us very much. The

Sixteenth Annual Meeting. 469

extinction of goats on Kapiti will involve still a great deal of work. We estimate
that there cannot bo less than throe hundred of them at the present time, and there
may be many more.

Australian Opossums. — In many parts of the bush the damage done by opossums
is noticeable. Kohekohe, niahoe, and passion-flower are among the plants that most
frequentlj- show the marks of havuig been attacked. There are several groups of
dead Fuchsia trees, and these the caretaker is satisfied have been killed by opossums.
Systematic trapping has been carried out, and the numbers have evidently been verj-
much reduced ; but they are still cpiite common. The only safe aim is their absolute
extinction so far as Kapiti is concerned.

Wild Cats. — We understand that most, jierhaps all, of the wild cats have been
killed. We neither saw nor heard any. The caretaker exercises unceasing vigilance
in the matter.

Deer and Wild Cattle. — All have been killed.

It will be seen that, except in the all-important matter of the wild sheep, there is
httle cause for disappointment and much cause for satisfaction with what has been
done. The achievement is due to the fact that the caretaker is very vigilant and
highly capable. Having selected a man with those cpiahfications, the Government
has failed to take the vitally important action that would liave resulted in complete
success.

Government'' s Intentions. — In the last estimates there apiioarod a sum of £1,000
for the purpose of stocking Kapiti Island with sheep. The mtention is to fence off
the clearing at Rangatira Point and the Taijiiro clearing in the middle of the island,
and to run two fences across the island, cuttmg off the open lands at tht^ northern and
southern ends. It is intended to make a track from Rangatira to the Taipiro clearing
and on to the southern clearing, to enable fences to be erected and to serve as driving-
tracks in mustering. Sheep could then be run on the open lands with no damage to
the bush. Presumably, all the Native sheep would first have been disposed of. The
advantages to be gained, in addition to revenue, would lie that danger from fires in long
dry grass would be avoided, and that there would lie a sufficient staff, maintained
without loss, to care properly for the parts of the island that would remain a sanctuary.

The Institute will probably consider whetlior it should make any representations
to the Government with regartl to the scheme just referred to. There is, we tliink, no
denying that if sheep are on the island there will always be some danger of the bush
being invaded by them, a danger that will be very shght under efficient management,
but that if at any time the island passes under cai-eless or otherwise inefficient manage-
ment will be very serious indeed. In such a case the position of the island as a
sanctuar}' might be worse than at present. If the island is kept as a sanctuary pure
and simi^le, as we suppose it was the first intention of the Government that it should,
then New Zealand will best have exi^ressed a sense of its duty to care for a portion of
a flora and fauna that are unique, the needless destruction of which could never be
excused, and could only be explained on the ground of sordid ignorance, (^n the other
hand, it is to be borne in mind that the danger of fire, already referred to, is a real one,
although one that may easily be exaggerated. The danger could be minimized by
planting the open lands with such Native trees and shrubs as would not readily carry
fire. Such planting would, of course, mvolve considerable expense. If the attitude of
the Governments of the future is such as we have known in the past, the proposal to
make revenue by utilizing the open sheep-lands of the island will, sooner or later, prove
irresistible, although now these Crown lands are allowed to be used by private individuals
and to the great detriment of the j^roperty of the State. If the Government runs sheep
on KajDiti, it is of vital importance that no sheep should be jjlaced on land that is not
properly fenced.

We wish to express our appreciation of the courtesy and help extended to us, as
representatives of the Institute, by Mi-. T. W. Broderick, Under-Secretary to the Crown
Lands Department, by Mi-. Phillips Turner, of that Department, and by Mr. J. L.
Bennett, the caretaker of the island.

16th January, 1919.

On the motion of JMr. Eliott, seconded by Mr. Hill, it was resolved,
That the Minister of Lands be urged to acquire the remaining portion of
the Island of Kapiti from the private owners, in order to prevent the
damage and destruction to the flora and fauna which is now taking place.

On the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded by Mr. Eliott, it was
resolved, That the Government be asked to formally recognize the New

470 Proceedings.

Zealand Institute as an advising body in connection with the administra-
tion of Kapiti Island and other plant and animal sanctuaries ; that the
Standing Committee constitute a deputation to wait upon the Hon. the
Minister of Lands to give reasons for recognizing the Institute as an advising
body in connection with the administration of Kapiti Island and other plant
and animal sanctuaries.

Amendment of Regulation 3. — A letter from the Wellington Philosophical
Society forwarding a resolution recommending the amendment of Kegu-
lation 3 was ruled out of order in not complying with the regulations.

Protection of Birds and Seals. — A letter from the Otago Institute
(17/12/18), which was supported by one from the Canterbury Philosophical
Institute (3/1/19), was read. On the motion of Professor Chilton, seconded
by Professor Thomas, it was resolved, That the Institute again urge upon
the Government the necessity of strictly enforcing the regulations for the
protection of the seals and native birds of New Zealand.

On the motion of the Hon. G. M. Thomson, seconded by Mr. L. Birks,
it was resolved. That the New Zealand Institute urge upon the Govern-
ment of Tasmania that seals and birds upon Macquarie Island should be
protected, and that a copy of this resolution be forwarded to the Royal
Society of Tasmania.

Proposed New Regulations. — A letter from Dr. Hilgendorf (27/11/18),
suggesting new regulations dealing with the transmission of papers from
the author.s to the Editor of the Transactions was considered.

Proposed Regulation 1 : That in the Regulations under the New Zea-
land Institute Act, clause 5, (a), (2) (see Transactions, vol. 49, p. 573), be
amended by the insertion, after the word " societies " in line 2, of the
words " or any general meeting of the New Zealand Institute." Adopted.

2. That the same subclause be further amended by the insertion, after
the second occurrence of the word " time " in line 4, of the words " by
special resolution in each case." This was amended by the insertion of the
words '' for special reasons " in place of the words " by special resolution,"
and was carried.

3. That the same subclause be amended by the insertion, after sub-
clause (6), of a new subclause as follows : "(c) No paper written by a person
that is not a member of the New Zealand Institute shall be considered for
publication unless the Council of the incorporated society before which
the paper was read shall certify that it is in possession of satisfactory
reasons why the author is not a member of the New Zealand Institute."
On being put to the meeting this was lost.

4. That after the above there be inserted another new subclause as
follows : " (rf.) In the case of a paper read before a general meeting of the
New Zealand Institute by a person that is not a member of the New Zealand
Institute the paper may be accepted for publication on the statement
of the Standing Committee that it considers that there are satisfactory
reasons why the author is not a member of the New Zealand Institute."
Withdrawn.

5. That in the same subclauses (c), (d), (e), (/) be lettered (e), (/), (g),
(h), respectively. Withdrawn.

6. That the whole clause as amended be printed in the next volume of
the Transactions and Proceedings. This was adopted with the deletion of
the word " whole."

Sixteenth Annual Meeting. 471

Clause 5 (a) of the Regulations as amended is as follows : —

The publications of the Institute shall consist of —

(1.) Such current abstract of the ]Hoceeclings of the societies foi' the time being
incorporated with the Institute as the Board of Governors deems
desirable ;
(2.) And of transactions comprising papers read before the int-orporated
societies or any general meeting of the New Zealand Institute (subject,
however, to selection as hereinafter mentioned), and of such other
matter as the Board of Governoi-s shall from time to time for special
reasons in each case determine to publish, to l)e intituled Transactions
of the New Zealand Institute.
7. That it be a recommendation to the Publication Committee to alter
the " Memorandum for Authors of Papers "' (see p. iii, vol. 49 or 50) bv
the deletion of the words " Secretary of the society before which it was
read," and the insertion therefor of the words '" Editor of the Transactions.''''
Adopted.

Metric System. — On the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded by the Hon.
G. M. Thomson, it was resolved. That it be a recommendation to authors
of papers to adhere as nearly as possible to the metric system in the
statements of any weights or measures.

Election of Honorarij Members. — A letter to the Presideiit from Professor
Benham (28/1/19), endorsed by Professors Malcolm and Jack, was received.
The Hon. Secretary pointed out that the regulations had been complied
with. On the motion of Professor Easterfield. seconded by Mr. Hill, it
was resolved, That the President be requested to reply to the letter from
Dr. Benham, pointing out that the Hon. Secretary has acted strictly in
accordance with the rules laid down by the Board of Governors, -t^^

A motion by Professor Chilton, seconded by Mr. Hill, That when
vacancies are known to exist in the list of honorary members of the
Institute notification of the number of vacancies be sent to the Secretaries
of the local societies before the 30th September, was lost. J ^ -0 p i^|^

A motion by Dr. J. A. Thomson, seconded by the Hon. G. M. Thomson,
That the Standing Committee prepare a list of vacancies of honorary
members and call for nominations from the incorporated societies before
the 1st June in each year, and communicate the complete list of nomina-
tions to each incorporated society before the 1st September, was lost.

On the motion of Mr. L. Birks, seconded by Professor Thomas, it
was resolved. That vacancies in the list of honorary members be announced
at each annual meeting of the Board of Governors, and such announcement
be communicated as early as possible to each incorporated society, and that
each such society nominate on or befoj-e the 1st December one person for
each vacancy as honorary member, and that the election take place at the
next annual meeting of the Board of Governors, notification of the vacancies
now on the roll of honorary members to be sent to the incorporated societies
at once.

On the motion of Professor Easterfield. seconded by the Hon. G. M.
Thomson, Dr. J. W. Mellor was unanimously elected an honorary member
of the New Zealand Institute. It was also resolved that Professor Easter-
field and the Hon. G. M. Thomson prepare for the Press an account of the
life and work of Dr. Mellor.

Election of Officers. — The officers for the year 1919 were unanimously
elected as follows : President, Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S. ; Hon. Editor,
Dr. C. A. Cotton ; Hon. Treasurer, Mr. C. A. Ewen : Hon. Librarian,
Dr. J. A. Thomson : Hon. Secretary, Mr. B. C. Aston.

472 Proceedings.

Election of Committees. — Publication Committee : Professor Kirk, Pro-
fessor Easterfield, Dr. Cotton, Dr. J. A. Thomson, and Mr. Aston.

Library Committee : Professor Somraerville, Dr. J. A. Thomson, and
Dr. Cotton.

Research Grants Committee : Professor Easterfield, Mr. Furkert, and
Mr. Aston.

Hector Award Committee : Mr. Elsdon Best (convener), Sir E. Baldwin
Spencer, Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, and Dr. J. A. Thomson.

Date and Place of the Next Annual Meeting. — On the motion of the
Hon. G. M. Thomson, seconded by Professor Kirk, it was resolved, That
the next annual meeting be held in Wellington, it being left with the
Standing Committee to fix the exact date.

Expenses of Governors and Hon. Secretary. — It was resolved to pay the
expenses of Governors attending the present meeting, as usual, and the
Standing Committee were instructed to provide such clerical assistance
for the Hon. Secretary as may be necessary.

Hearty Votes of Thanks were accorded to the officers of the Philosophical
Institute of Canterbury for their efforts in direction of the Congress, and
for the arrangements for holding the annual meeting ; to the Chairman
of the Canterbury College Board of Governors for the use of the Board
room ; and to the honorary officers of the Institute for their services during
the past year.

New Zealand institute Science Congress. 473

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
SCIENCE CONGRESS, I9I9,

A Series of Meetings of the Members of the New Zealand Institute,
HELD IN the Canterbury College Buildings. Christchurch, 4th
TO 8th February, 1919.

Introductory Note.

By section 9 of the New Zealand Institute Act. 1908, the Board of
Governors of the Institute is empowered to make arrangements from time
to time for tlie holding of general meetings of the Institute for the reading
of scientific papers, the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion
of science in New Zealand by any means that may appear desirable. This
section had been inserted in the Act on the suggestion of the late Captain
F. W. Hutton.

On more than one occasion the Board of Governors endeavoured to
arrange for general meetings of the members of the Institute, but for
geographical and other reasons these efforts were not successful.

At the meeting of the Board of Governors at Wellington in January,
1918, the representatives of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury,
acting on behalf of that Institute, invited the New Zealand Institute to
hold a series of meetings in Christchurch early in the year 1919. This offer
was accepted, and later in the year preliminary arrangements were made
and it was decided that, while the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury
would be responsible for the local arrangements, the selection of the papers,
lectures, and other matters connected with the meeting should be attended
to by the New Zealand Institute through its Standing Committee, and a
sub-committee of the Standing Committee was appointed for this purpose.
Some progress with the arrangements was made, but in November, 1918,
owing to the illness of some members of this sub-committee and other causes
the Standing Committee requested the Philosophical Institute to take over
the whole of the preparations necessary for the meetings, and thi!> the
Council agreed to undertake.

At the request of the Council, the Mayor of Christchurch, H. Holland, Esq.,
had previously convened a public meeting of the citizens of Christchurch
to consider what steps should be taken to provide for hospitality to the
visiting members and for other local arrangements. At a subsequent
meeting a Hospitality Committee, an Excursions Committee, and a Finance
Committee were set up, and many offers of assistance were received.

The influenza epidemic during the latter part of the year, and the conse-
quent alteration of the dates of the meeting of the Senate of the New
Zealand University and of the Matriculation Examination gave rise to
unexpected difficulties, but the meeting was successfully held at the time
previously agreed upon, 4th to 8th February, 1919, in the Canterbury
College buildings, the use of which had been kindly granted by the
Board of Governors and the Professorial Board of the College.

A small handbook containing the provisional programme, the list of
officers, and notes for visitors was prepared, and early in January, 1919,
was widely distributed among the members of the New Zealand Institute.

474 Proceedings.

Officers of the Congress.

PRESIDENT.
Dr. L. CocKAYNK, F.R.S.

HON. SECRETARY.
Mr. William Martin, B.Sc.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The Officers and Council of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, and the Chairman
of tile Hospitality, Excursions, and Finance Committees — viz. : Officers and Council
of Philosophical Institute of Canterbury (President, Professor C- C Fakr, D.Sc,
F.P.S.L. ; Vice-Presidents, Messrs. W. H. Skinkee and L. P. Symes ; Hon.
Secretary, Mr. William Martin, B.Sc. ; Hon. Treasurer, Dr. Charles Chilton,
F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. ; Hon. Librarian. Mr. W. G. Aldridge, M.A. ; Hon. Auditor,
Mr. G. E. Way ; Council, Dr. F. W. Hilgendoff. M.A., Messrs. L. Birks, B.Sc,
L. J. Wild. M.A.. F.G.S., A. V. Moi-ntford, M. H. Godby, M.A., B.Sc, James
Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S.) ; Chainnan Ho.spitahty Committee, Sir John Den-
NiSTON ; Chairman Excursions Committee, Mr. E. F. Stead ; Chairman Finance
Committee, Mr. A. Kaye.

HOSPITALITY COMMITTEE.
Sir John Denniston (Ciiairman), His Worship the Mayor (Mr. H. Holland), Mrs.
Carey Hn.L, Miss R. Tabart, Miss M. Ferrar. Dr. H. T. J. Thackee, M.P.,
Messr.s. R. C. Bishop, H. D. Acland, R. Scott, (j. T. Booth, A. W. Beaven.

EXCURSIONS COMMITTEE.
Messrs. E. F. Stead (Chairman), R. E. Alexander, L. Birks, C. M. Ollivier,
N. L .Macbeth. H. G. Ell, M.P.. R. Speight, R. M. Laing, C. J. Williams,
H. F. Skey. H. J. Marriner.

FINANCE COMMITTEE.
Mr. A. Kaye (Chairman). Professor R. J. Scott, Councillors Howard and Flesher,
Messrs. B. Seth-Smith, G. Humphreys, A. W. Jamieson, J. Keir, T- J. McBride,
William Reece, and Dr. W. P. Evans.

General Meeting, Tuesday, 4th February, 1919, 11 a..\i.

Present : Dr. L. Cockayne, President, in the chair, and a large number
of members of the New Zealand Institute.

The President announced the general arrangements of the Science
Congress.

On the motion of the President, it was decided that the sections, with
their officers, be as follows : —

Section 1.— BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE.
President. Dr. C J. Reakes, M.R.C.V.S. ; Vice-President, Hon. G. M. Thomson,
F.L.S. ; Hon. Secretaries, Dr. C. Chilton, F.L.S., CM.Z.S., and Dr. F. W.
Hilgendorf, F.G.S.

Section 2.— GEOLOGY.
President, Mr. P. G. Morgan, F.G.S. ; Vice-President, Dr. C A. Cotton, F.G.S. ; Hon.
Secretary, Mr. L. J. Wild, F.G.S.

Section 3.— CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, AND ENGINEERING.
President, Professor T. H. Easterfield, F.I.C, F.CS. ; Vice-President, Professor
D. M Y. SoMMERViLLE, F.R.S-E. ; Hon. Secretaries, Messrs. S. Page, B.Sc, and
D. B. McLeod, M.A., B.Sc.

Section 4.— GENERAL.
President, Ven. Arcluleacon H. W. Williams, M.A. ; Vice-President, Dr. J. Allan
Thomson, F.G.S. ; Hon. Secretary, Jlr. W. M.artin, B.Sc

Neiv Zealand Institute Science Congress. 475

In view of the recent death of Mr. Hill it was decided not to take
advantage of the offer of the Canterbury Aviation School to arrange an
exhibition of flying, but to send a letter of appreciation to the directors
for their offer and of sympathy with them in the loss of their director.

Dr. Chilton and Dr. Hilgendorf made announcements with regard to
the excursions to Arthur's Pass, Riccarton Bush, and Lincoln College
respectively.

Several invitations to visit works of scientific or industrial interest
round Christchurch were accepted with thanks, also an invitation from
the United Club to place the facilities of their grounds at the disposal of
the members.

On the motion of Dr. J. A. Thomson, it was decided to hold another
general meeting on Friday, 7th February, at 12 noon.

Civic Reception, Tuesday, 4:TH February, 1919, 11.30 a.m.

His Worship the Mayor of Christchurch, H. Holland, Esq., gave a civic
reception to the officers of the New Zealand Institute and to the visiting
members in the City Council Chamber. The meeting was largely attended
by members of the City Council and by many prominent citizens.

Addresses of welcome were delivered by the Mayor and Dr. C. Coleridge
Farr, President of tlie Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, and were
responded to by Dr. L. Cockayne, President of the New Zealand Institute.

Opening Ceremony, Tuesday, 4th February, 1919, 8 p.m.

The chair was taken by the President, Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S.. and
there were present His Excellency the Governor-General, Lady Liverpool.
and suite ; the Hon. G. W. Russell, Minister of Internal Affairs : His
Worship the Mayor of Christchurch (H. Holland, Esq.) ; the Chairman
of the Board of Governors of Canterbury College (H. D. Acland, Esq ) ;
and a large number of members of the Institute aud their friends.

The Congress was opened by His Excellency the Governor-General,
who in his address called attention to the necessity for scientific research
in connection with public health and industries, particularly forestry and
fisheries.

The Hon. G. W. Russell, Minister of Internal Affairs, thanked His
Excellencv for opening the Congress, and said he hoped that the Science
Congress would be held annually. He stressed the necessity for the
development of the industries, mineral resources, and fisheries of New
Zealand, and said that what was required was the creation of a scientific
atmosphere throughout the Dominion.

The President then delivered his annual address to the New Zealand
Institute (see pp. 485-95).

General Meeting, Friday, 7th February, 1919, Noon.
Present : Dr. L. Cockayne, President, in the chair, and a number of
members from the sections.

Resolutions from various sections were received and adopted, as
follows : —

Pure Seeds.

1. That this Congress urges upon the Government that no time should
be lost in placing on the statute-book a Pure Seeds Act on the lines urged
by Government officers, farmers, and dealers for over twenty years past.

476 Procttdinys.

Dnm in ion Herbarium .

2. That the Science Congress of the New Zeahmcl Institute considers
that a comprehensive herbarium should be established in the Dominion
Museum, and that a fully qualified keeper of the herbarium be appointed.

Pronwiciation of Scientific Terms.

3. That it is advisable that a Committee of the New Zealand Institute
be set up to go into the details and draw up a logical, uniform, scientific
system of pronunciation of scientific terms ; that the scheme when
complete should be adopted by the Institute, and that every possible effort
should be made to introduce and explain it in all the University colleges
and all institutions where science (even elementary science) is taught, with
a view to establishing such uniformity as may be possible.

Unifonniti/ in Biological Language.

4. That a committee be appointed to consider uniformity in biological
language, the committee to consist of Professors Johnson, Kirk, Benham,
and Chilton (convener).

Soil Survey.

5. That a soil survey be undertaken as soon as possible.

Spray Compounds.

6. That the Government be asked to introduce legislation to provide
for the purity and standardization of spray compounds.

Palaeontology.

7. That a Palaeontologist be ap])ointed immediately as a permanent
member of the Geological Survey.

Seismology.

8. That seismological instruments of the most modern character be
installed in Wellington to replace the present ones.

Astronomy.

9. That the Congress urge on the Government the importance of having
systematic tests made of the suitability of sites for astronomical and
geophysical observatories, beginning with an investigation of Central Otago.

Meteorology.

10. That the Congress place on record its appreciation of the work of
the very numerous voluntary observers in New Zealand who helped
meteorological science by daily observations in connection with the
Dominion Meteorological Department.

11. That the Congress point out to the Government the desirability of
investigation into the climatic winds of the Dominion, and that the
assistance of the Meteorological Department be invoked in the matter.

Magnetic Survey.

12. That the desirability of establishing an electrograph at the Christ-
church Magnetic Observatory be urged on the Government.

'New Zealand Institute Science Congress. ill

Longitude.

13. That the Congress urge on the Government the importance of New-
Zealand acting jointly with the Australian observatories in the determination
of longitude by radio-telegraphic methods, during the month of May, 1919.

Bench-marks.

14. That the Congress urge on the Government the importance of
establishing permanent bench-marks and tide-gauges, and to connect the
bench-marks by lines of precise levelling.

Preservation of Fauna.

15. That the New Zealand Institute combine with acclimatization
societies in urging the Government to pass fresh legislation to preserve
the native fauna, and that the subject be introduced into the State schools.

Standard Time.

16. That the Government be asked to alter the standard time from
eleven and a half to twelve hours in advance of Greenwich time.

The Philosophical Institute of Canterbury was asked to draw up a
record of the proceedings of the Congress.

MEETINGS OF SECTIONS.

SECTION 1.— BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE.

Tuesday, 4th February, 1919.

Members of this section met in the Biology lecture-room at noon.
Present : Hon. G. M. Thomson, Vice-President, in the chair, and several
members. Papers for the following day's session were arranged for. The
two excursions, one to Lincoln Agricultural College, for agriculturists chiefly,
and the other to Riccarton Bush, were decided upon for Tuesday afternoon.

Wednesday, -Sth February, 1919, 10 a.m.

Present : Hon. G. M. Thomson, Vice-President, in the chair, and over
thirty members.

An excursion was arranged to the Dyer's Pass Ptest-house for the
afternoon.

Papers. — " Yellow Flax Disease of Phormium tenax,'' by Dr. L. Cockayne
and Mr. A. H. Cockayne

" Seed-testing," by Mr. E. B. Levy.

" The Vegetation of Banks Peninsula, with a List of Species (Flowering-
plants and Ferns)," by Mr. R. M. Laing. (Printed in the Transactions,
pp. 355-408.)

Thursday, 6th February, 1919, 10 a.m.

Present : Hon. G. M. Thomson, Vice-President, in the chair, and a
number of members.

Papers. — " Control of Animal-disease in New Zealand," by Dr. C. J.
Reakes.

478 Proceedings.

'■ The Need of a Comprehensive Dominion Herbarium," by Mr. D.
Petrie. (Printed in the N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 2,
pp. 260-62, 1919.)

" Polymorphism in the Common New Zealand Limpet, Cellana radians
(Gri^ielin)," by Dr. J. A. Thomson. (Printed in the N.Z. Journal of Science
and Technology, vol. 2, pp. 264-67, 1919.)

" A New Discoglossoid Frog from New Zealand {Liopelma hamiltoni),"
by A. E. McCuUoch. (Printed in the Transactions, pp. 447-49.)

" The Pronunciation of Scientific Terms in New Zealand, with Special
Reference to the Terms of Botany," by Professor A. Wall. (Printed in
the Transactions, pp. 409-14.)

" A Plea for Greater Simplicity in Biological Language," by Dr. C.

Chilton.

Friday, 7th February, 1919.

Present : Hon. G. M. Thomson, Vice-President, in the chair, and a
number of members.

At this session, in order to cope with the number of papers still to be
read, it was found necessary to hold separate meetings for the Biology
and Agriculture subsections.

Subsection la, Biology.

Papers. — " The Status of Entomology in the Economy of the Dominion,"
by Mr. D. Miller. (Printed in the N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology,
vol. 2, pp. 269-73, 1919.)

'^ Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera," by Mr. E. Meyrick.
(Printed in the Transactions, pp. 349-54.)

'' Notes on the Autecology of certain Plants of the Peridotite Belt,
Nelson," by Miss M. W. Betts. (Printed in the Transactions, pp. 136-56.)

^" A History of Hagley Park, Christchurch, with Special Reference to its
Botany," by Miss E. M. Herriott. (Printed in the Transactions, pp. 427-47.)

" The Seedling Form of Helichrysum coralloides,'" by Dr. L. Cockayne.
(Printed in the N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 2, pp. 274-78,
1919.)

" Some Geological Inferences from the Distribution of Raminculus
paucifolius,'" by Professor A. Wall.

" Convergent Evolution in the Crustacea," by Dr. C. Chilton.

" New Zealand Fisheries and their Future Development," by the Hon.
G. M. Thomson.

Subsection lb, Agricidture.

Papers. — Plant-breeding Methods and some Results," by Dr. F. W.
Hilgendorf.

" The Control of Succession m Surface-sown Grassland," by Mr. A. H.
Cockayne.

" Compatibility of Spraying-mixtures," by Mr. W. C. Morris.

" Nitrification in Relation to the Calcium-carbonate Content of Canter-
bury Soil," by Mr. L. J. Wild.

ABSTRACT.

The work necessary to the completion of this paper was interrupted at a
critical time by an attack of pneumonic influenza. The problem may be

A'ew Zealand InstiHUe Science Congress. 479

briefly stated as follows : It is generally accepted that a good suj)ply of
calcium carbonate is necessary in the soil for the efficient carrying-on of the
process of nitrification, though it is difficult to say in quantitative terms
exactly what amount constitutes a sufficiency. Analyses, of which the
results are as yet unpublished, show that the quantity of carbonate of
lime in CanterlDury Plains soils is small — from O'l to 0"2 per cent. — and
yet nitrification apparently proceeds at a satisfactory rate, since, so far
as we know, ordinary crops are not markedly benefited by supplies of
nitrogenous fertilizers. This research aims at determining the effect on the
rate of nitrification produced by adding varying quantities of carbonate
of lime to typical soils.

" Cold Storage of Fruit," by Messrs. Logan and W. C. Morris.

" Agriculture's Debt to Science," by Sir James Wilson.

SECTION 2.— GEOLOGY.
Tuesday, 4th February, 1919, Noon.

Present : Dr. C. A. Cotton, Vice-President, in the chair, and a number
of members.

Apologies for absence were received from Drs. Marshall and Henderson,
Professor Park, and Messrs. Uttley and Bartrum.

The programme of papers for the meeting of the following day was
arranged, and the question of excursions by the section was discussed.

Wednesday, 5th February, 1919, 9.30 a.m.

Present : Dr. C. A. Cotton, Vice-President, in the chair, and thirteen
others.

Excursion. — Mr. Speight announced that he had made arrangements
for an excursion to Quail Island in the afternoon.

Papers. — " The Older Gravels of North Canterbury," by Mr. R. Speight.
(Printed in the Transactions, pp. 269-81.)

" Geological and Palaeontological Notes on the Palliser Bay District,"
by Dr. J. Allan Thomson.

abstract.

The Wairarapa limestone, of Waitotaran age, which McKay describes as
present on the eastern side of the Wairarapa depression from Cape Kidnap-
pers south to Martinborough, does not continue to Palliser Bay. The pro-
bable explanation is that the Haurangi Mountains, consisting of greywackes
and argillites, represent a block uplifted along a nearly north-south fault on
their east side, and that the continuation of the limestone will be found
in the fault-angle to the east. In the Ruakokopatuna Valley, near McLeod's
station, along part of which the fault runs, the western side is formed by
greywackes and argillites, but the eastern by Wairarapa limestone separated
from the underlying greywacke by a thin bed of greensand. This is the first
known glauconitic horizon in the Waitotaran, and, as was expected, it
yielded new species of brachiopods — viz., Neothyris sp. and Terebratulina sp.

The mudstones forming the cliffs on the north-west corner of Palliser
Bay rest on a thin bed of gritty sandstone containing Terehratella neo-
zelandica and Hemithyris antipodum, and this in turn rests unconforniably
on greywackes. The lowest layers of the mudstone contain numerous fossil

480 Proceedings.

moUusca, of Oamaruian and probably Awamoan age, including a form
resembling Strut hiolaria tuherculata, but distinguished by an enormously
swollen inner lip. Mudstones considerably higher up in the succession con-
tain a Waitotaran fauna, with such species as Verconella orhita (Hutt.),
Cominella ptirchasi Suter, and Pecten delicatidus Hutt. The succeeding
sandy and gravelly beds at the mouth of the Ruamahunga River yield
mostly Recent species, including Pecten delicatulus.

The nature of the beds and the succession of the fossil faunas in the
Palliser Bay district show a close parallelism with those of the Awatere
series in Marlborough, and evidently belong to the same diastrophic sub-
district, characterized by a marine transgression commencing near the close
of the Oamaruian and extending throughout the Waitotaran, and afiecting
areas of pre-Notocene rocks not submerged during the lower Notocene
transgressions.

Specimens of Pecten delicatulus showing clearly the ornament of both
valves were obtained both from Palliser Bay and from mudstones inter-
calated in the Wairarapa limestone at Twaite's cutting, near Martinborough.
These show that the assumption of Hutton, which was accepted by Suter,
that Pecten difluxus is a synonym of Pecten delicatulus cannot be upheld,
and the former must therefore be regarded a valid species. There is a Recent
specimen in the Dominion Museum, labelled "New Zealand," which appears
to be Pecten delicatulus.

Thursday, 6th February, 1919.

Present : Mr. P. G. Morgan, President, in the chair, and twelve others.

Votes of thanks were passed to Mr. Speight for arranging and conducting
the excursion to Quail Island, Lyttelton, and to Dr. C. Coleridge Farr for
assistance with the lantern.

Papers. — " The Significant Features of Reef -bordered Coasts," by
Professor W. M. Davis ; comnmnicated by Dr. Benson. (Printed in the
Transactions, pp. 6-30.)

" Rough Ridge, Otago, and its Splintered Fault-scarp," by Dr. C. A.
Cotton. (Printed in the Transactions, pp. 282-85.)

" Geography : Some Educational Aspects of the Subject," by Mr. E. K.
Lomas. (Printed in the N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 2,
pp. 282-85, 1919.)

'■ Report of a Committee on the Natural Features of the Arthur's
Pass Tunnel." by Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf. (Printed in the Transactions,
pp. 422-26.)

" Range of Tertiary MoUusca in the Oamaruian of North Otago and
South Canterbury," by Dr. J. A. Thomson.

ABSTRACT.

The Oamaruian is divided into five stages, four of which are marine at
Oamaru and contain fossil molluscs. A very large number of fossils have
been collected fron^ the Oamaru, Waitaki, Waihao, Pareora, and Kakahu
districts by officers of the Geological Survey and others, and have been
determined by the late Mr. H. Suter. The plotted lists exhibited show the
range of each species for each of these several localities. The majority of
species found in the lowest, or Waiarekan, stage are also present in the
highest, or Awamoan, stage, but there is a small proportion confined to
single stages. This is particularly so in the case of the Awamoan stage, but

New Zealand Inatifiitf Science Congress. 481

the collecting, especially by Marshall in the Oaniaru district, has been much
more exhaustive for this stage than for any of the others. The difference
111 station of the species found in the Ototaran and Hutchinsonian probably
accounts for the absence in these stages of iiiany species common to the
Waiarekan and Awanioan, and also for the ])resence of other species absent
from the two last-named stages. The general result of the analysis is to
show that the molluscan fauna did not change greatly during the Oamaruian,
and hence distant correlations with individual stag(>s based solely on
mollusca are difficult to establish. A closer study of the fossils on
evolutionary lines might lead to the discrimination of species now lumped
together which might prove to have a zonal value.

" The Geology of the Middle Clarence and lire Valleys, East Marlborough,
New Zealand,"" bv Dr. J. A. Thomson. (Printed in the Transactions,
pp. 289-349.)

Friday, 7th February, 1919.

Present : Mr. P. G. Morgan, President, in the chair, and a number of
others.

Fapvis. ■" A Quantitative Study of the Silica-saturation of Jgiieous
Rocks." by Dr. J. A. Thomson.

ABSTRACT.

Variation curves for chemical constituents (mainly oxides) plotted
against silica have been given by Harker for Pacific and Atlantic rocks,
but trial plottings of a large number of analyses show that the points
representing given rocks group themselves together into curved belts (a.
sort of Milky Way) and do not tend to lie on lines, as Marker's diagrams
might suggest. If these belts could be sufficiently defined by the ])lotting
of all reliable analyses, each rock could be then classified as abnormally
high, normal, or abnormally low for each chemical constituent compared
to silica, and a valuable means of comparing rock-analyses would result.
The combination of all such classifications for each important constituent,
however, would yield more classes of analyses than there are superior
analyses; and would be cumbersome. The attempt has therefore been made
to obtain a small number of functions of the analyses combining relation-
ships between various oxide molecules such as exist in minerals. A norm
somewhat similar to that of the American classification has been adopted,
but in order to avoid the difficulty of attempting comparisons of such related
molecules as orthoclase and leucite, albite and nepheline, hypersthene and
olivine, in Avhicli the second mineral in each of the groups named is under-
saturated in silica, it has l)een assumed in calculation that unlimited silica
is available. The amount of silica actually used in satisfjdng the various
bases on the assumption of complete silica-saturation is then compared with
the amount shown to be actually present by the analysis, and a percentage
figure is obtained expressing when positive the amount of free quartz
present in the norm, and when negative the degree of undersaturation of
silica. A further difference from the American norm is also the calcula-
tion of excess Al^Og and FcjOg to hydrous silicates Al2O3.SiO2.2H2O
and Fe2O3.SiO2.2H2O, since alumina and ferric iron control at least an
equivalent of silica in the alferric minerals after possible feldspars and
metasilicates have been calculated. By this means a quantitative esti-
mate of silica-saturation for any rock-analysis is obtained. This in turn
is plotted against total silica, and a variation belt obtained as in the case

16— Trans.

482 Proceedings.

of the oxides. Other functions used are the total feldspars (calculated on
the assumption of unlimited silica), the total metasilicates, and the iron-ores
and minor accessories. A trial })lotting of the feldspars has not shown very
definite grouping into a belt, and if a further series of analyses does not
remedy this defect it will be necessary to seek for other functions of the
analyses which do satisfactorily group themselves.

About a thousand analyses have been calculated and plotted, but some
years ago the research was laid aside in view of the anticipated early publi-
cation of the second edition of Washington's Suj)erior Analyses of Igneous
Rocks, which would render unnecessary the individual collation of analyses
from original pajiers. This publication was, however, delayed by the war,
and has not yet reached New Zealand. It is hoped to resume and com-
plete the researcli by the aid of a Government research grant. Meanwhile
it is of interest, in view of recent discussion of silica-saturation from the
C[ualitative point of view, to point out that a quantitative study could
easily be made.

'■ The Tectonic Conditions accom})anying the Intrusion of Basic and
Ultra-basic Igneous Rocks." by Professor W. N. Benson.

'' Notes on the Mechanical Composition of the so-called Loess at Timaru,"
by Mr. L. J. Wild. (Printed in the Transactions, pp. 286-88.)

'■ The Organization and Functions oi a State Geological Survey," by
Mr. P. G. Morgan. (Printed in the N .Z. Journal of Science and Technology,
vol. 2, pp. 289-99, 1919.)

Resolutions. — The following resolutions were adopted : —

1. ■■ That the Government be urged to appoint a Palaeontologist as a
permanent member of the Geological Survey at the earliest possible oppor-
tunity, such an officer being essential for the proper carrying-on of any
geological survey."" (Proposer, Mr. R. S|)eight ; seconder, Dr. C. A. Cotton.)

2. ■' That this meeting urges upon the Government the importance of
instituting a seisinographic installation of tlie most modern type, as the
instruments used in New Zealand at jiresent, though giving very useful
information, are not capable of work of the highest character." (Proposer,
Professor W. N. Benson ; seconder. Dr. C. A. Cotton.)

SECTION 3.— CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, AND ENGINEERING.
Wednesday, 5th February, 1919, 10 a.m.

Present : Professor T. H. Easterfield, President, in the chair, and a
number of others.

Papers. — " An Improved Planisphere," by Professor D. M. Y. Sommer-
ville. (Printed in the N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 2,
pp. 193-95, 1919.)

" Tables of Mathematical Functions, "" by Dr. C. E. Adams.

" The Leather Industry," liy Mr. A. V. Mountford.

Thursday, 6th February, 1919. 10 a.m.

Present : Professor T. H. Easterfield, President, in the chair, and many
others.

Pa])('rs.^'' The New Zeahiud Climate,"' by Mr. F. L. Wooles.

'New Zealand Institute Science Congress. 483

" The North-west Winds of Canterbury," by Mr. H. F. Skey. (Printed
in the N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 2, pp. 300-1, 1919.)

" The Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations and the Prediction of
Tides," by Dr. C. E. Adams.

ABSTRACT.

Practically all existing metliods used for the harmonic analysis of tidal
observations have many numerical approximations employed in their prac-
tical applications. It therefore becomes difficult to determine whether the
method of harmonic analysis gives the best representation of the tide
curve.

In the method here described no arithmetical approximations are used,
so that a criterion is obtained to test the application of Fourier's series to
tidal observations.

A description is given of the method of prediction of tides used in New-
Zealand. An illustrated description of this process appeared in the Survey
Reports of the Lands and Survey Department for the years 1910-14, and
to these reports reference should be made for the details. The process is
a graphic one, controlled by calculation. The results of the predictions
for Wellington and Auckland are published in the Netv Zealand Nautical
Almanac by the Marine Department.

" A Slide-rule for solving the Quadratic Equation."" by Professor D. M. Y.
Sommerville.

" Porosity of Porcelain Insulators," by Dr. C. C. Farr. (Printed in the
N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 2, pp. 302-7, 1919.)

" Interference of Power Circuits with Telephone Circuits,'" by Mr. E.
Parry. (Printed in the N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 2,
pp. 308-14, 1919.)

" The Effect of Low Power-factor from the Standpoint of Electric-power-
station Operators," by Mr. E. E. Stark. (Printed in the N.Z. Journal of
Science and Technology, vol. 2, pp. 314^17, 1919.) ,

Friday, 7th February, 1919, 10 a.m.

Present : Professor T. H. Easterfield, President, in the chair, and a
number of others.

Papers. — " National Hvdro-electric Schemes for New Zealand," bv Mr.
H. Hill.

■■ Exhibit of Photographs on Glass of Solai' Corona, taken by Lick
Observatory. 8th June, 1918, at Goldendale, Washington, U.S.A.," by Dr.
C. E. Adams. (Printed in the N .Z. Journal of Science and Technology.
vol. 2, pp. 317-19, 1919.)

" Deteimination of the Position of the Moon b\- Photography, and
Exhibit of Photographs of the Moon and Surrounding Stars," b\^ Dr. C. E.
Adams.

abstract.

An exhibit was made of ])liotogTaphs, taken at the Lick Observatory,
of the moon and surrounding stars, to determine with great accuracy the
position of the moon. This work was undertaken to enable Professor
E. W. Brown, the eminent mathematical astronomer at Yale, to check his
new tables of the moon. On the original |)lates stars as fnint as the tenth

16*

484 I'lOccedijKjs.

magnitude were succossfully pliotographed at full moon. The exposures
were usually 4 minutes on the stars, then \ second on the moon, and then
anf)ther 4 minutes on the stars. The excellent star-iniages secured sjieak
^^■('ll of the Crossley reflector telescope, which was driven witltout any
guiding, and the ])hotographs prove that the ])Osition of the moon and
terrestrial iongitude can be dehn-mined with high ])recision.

" The Almucantar Method of Observatioji for the Determination of Time
and Latitude," by Dr. C E. Adams.

" A Nomogram for Transit Instrument Star Factors," by Dr. C". K.
Adams.

SECTION 4.— GENERAL.
Wednesday. 5th February, 191i>, 10 a..m.

Present : Archdeacon 11. W. Williams. President, in the cliair. and nianv
others.

Papers. — " Moriori Art. 1)V Mr. H. 1). Hkiimer.

" Some Notes on the Language of the Chatham Islands," by Archdeacon
H. W. Williams. (Printed in the Transactions, pp. 415-22.)

" The Natural Laws of Poetry," by Mr. J. 0. Andersen. (Printed in tlie
N.Z. Journal of Science and TcchiioJof/;/. vol. 2. ])p. 320-39, 1919.)

Friday. 7th February. 1919, 9.30 a.m.

Present : Archdeacon H. W. Williams, President, in the chair, and nian\-
others.

Papers. — " Afforestation in New Zealand." by Mr. W. H. Skinner.

" Some Proposals with regard to Natural Afforestation in a New Zea-
land Mountain Area," by Mr. W. G. Morrison. (Printed in the X.Z. Jounial
of Science and Technology, vol. 2, pj). 339-49. 1919.)

" Preservation of Ne\\i Zealand Fauna."" by Mi. E. G. Stead.
Discussion. — '" Davliaht-saving." \>v Dr. C E. Adams.

PUBLIC EVENING LECTURES.
Wednesday, 5th February.
•^ Vestiges of the Primeval Plant World."" bv tli.' \l.^\ . \)v. J. K. Holloway.

Thursday, 6th February.
" Mountain Sculpture."" b\- Dr. C. A. Cotton.
" Mountain Structure,"" by Professor W. N. Benson.

Friday. 7th February.
■■ The Influenza Epidemic."" b}' Dr. A. B. Pearson.

GARDEN PARTY.

On Thursday afternoon, 6th February, 1919, Mr. and Mrs. E. F. Stead
gave a garden party to the members of the Institute at their residence at
ilam, Riccarton. There wer(> present His Excellency the Governor-General,

iVew Zealand Institute Science Congress. 485

Lady Liverpool, and siiit*^, tlie President of the Congress (Dr. 1.. Cockayne,
F.R.S.), His Honour Sir John Denniston, the Mayor of (Jhristchurch
(H. Holland, Esq.), Mrs. Luk(> (Mayoress of Wellington) and other visiting
Red Cross Council d<'legates, many officers and members of the lustitnte,
and a large number of citizens of Christchurch. The beautiful lawns and
garden, with its fine representation of native plants and its winding jjaths
exhibiting glorious hydrangeas growing on the river-banks, wer(^ nuich
enjoyed by the visitors, and combined with the brilliant sunshine music,
and the social intercourse to make the occasion memorable.

EXCURSIONS.

During the Congress excursions were made to the hydro-electric p(]\vi'r-
station at Lake Coleridge, to the Agricultural College, Lincoln, to Riccarton
Bush, and to Dyer's Pass on the Port Hills.

Geological excursions were made to Quail Island, Lytteltou Harliour,
and to Grey River.

Other excursions were made by different meiiibers to various places of
scientific and industrial interest in the vicinitv of Christchurch.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
By L. Cockayne, Ph.D.. F.R.S.

Your Excellencies, Ladies and Gentlemen. — At those great Science
Congresses held by the British Association for the Advancement of Science
— the mother of such associations throughout the world — the President has
dealt not infrequently with the more recent history of scientific advance
in that special branch of knowledge which is his life-work. At future public
meetings of the New Zealand Institute addresses of like character would be
most desirable. The history of New Zealand science itself in its various
branches would be of especial moment and form a basis for further ach-ance.
But on this occasion — the first time, indeed, that the New Zealand Institute
since its initiation has come before the public — it seems fitting rather to
deal, but of necessity briefly, with the history of the Institute itself,
touching on its modest beginnings, its past achievements — if I dare so
call them — and its activities at the present time. Then I shall say
something about what I take to be the aspirations of the Institute, and
its aims.

To the great majority of the people of this Dominion the New Zealand
Institute is at best but a name. The world over, the incalculable benefits
of science are accepted without a thought as to how or from whom such
benefits are derived.

This present time is assuredly a critical period in the history of mankind ;
it is even a critical period in the history of this wonderful New Zealand,
endow(;d though she be witli an infinity of riches and potentialities for
greatness. At no time in the history of the British Empire has tlie uutiiiiig
prosecution of science been more urgently demanded.

As for New Zealand, it is not sufficient to rely upon investigations
carried on beyond her borders. She has her special problems, whicli can
be solved only upon her own soil, and which ought surely to be investigated
by her own sons and daughters. It is essential, then, that the sole scientific
body of the Dominion — the New Zealand Institute — should get into much

486 Proceedings.

closer touch, with the people, and that the relation of the Institute to the
progress of the Dominion, both materially and intellectually, should become
more fully understood.

The New Zealand Institute had its beginnings in certain small societies
which were formed at Nelson and Wellington respectively in the early days
of those provinces. The colonists had brouglit with them the freedom
and the manners and customs of the Motherland, and, so equipped, their
intention was to form a Britain in this far south. Evidently some of
these colonists were not forgetful of those splendid British learned societies
which had their origin in that small coterie — soon to become the Royal
Society — which met in London in 1651, even while the Civil War was
raging. Therefore quite early certain scientific bodies were established . The
Nelson Society yet remains as the Nelson Institute. The New Zealand
Society founded in Wellington in 1851 by Sir George Grey soon became
defunct owing to the departure of its gifted founder from New Zealand.
In 1859 a new society, but bearing the same name, was formed in
Wellington. Some years later, at the instance of Bishop Abraham, the
name was changed to the " Wellington Pliilosophical Society."' In 1862
the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury was founded, and, later on, the
Auckland Institute. All the above bodies had as their main, though ]iot
their sole, object the prosecution of scientific research. Amongst the earliest
workers the names of Buchanan, Buller, Colenso, Haast, Hector, Monj-o,
Sinclair, and Travers stand out prominently. These small societies were
greatly hampered not only through lack of funds, but for want of a local
journal in which the results of the investigations of their members could
be published. This crying need was met by the establishment in 1867 of
the New Zealand Institute by means of an Act of the General Assembly.
The Institute as thus constituted consisted of a Board of Governors, three
of whom were members ex officio, six were nominated by the Government,
and three were elected by the Board of Governors from nominees of the
incorporated societies. Dr. (afterwards Sir James) Hector, F.E.S., was
appointed Manager — a position unknown in learned societies in general.
This important post he filled most ably until his retirement from the Public
Service in the year 1903.

The societies originally incorporated with the New Zealand Institute
were the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Auckland Institute, the
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, and the Westland Naturalists" and
Acclimatization Society. A year later (1869) the Otago Institute was incor-
porated, and in 1874 and 1875 the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute.
Each incorporated society had by statute to consist of " not less than
twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate a sum of not less than
fifty pounds sterling annually for the promotion of art, science, or such
other branch of knowledge for which it is associated." Moreover, each
incorporated society had to spend not less than one-third of its annual
revenue towards a local public museum or library, or towards the exten-
sion or maintenance of the museum and library of the New Zealand
Institute.

This provision has led to the building-up of scientific libraries in
Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, which, though inade-
quate for many classes of research, have been and still are of no small
benefit to New Zealand science.

The most important feature of the New Zealand Institute was, however,
that it provided, and at first adequately enough, for the publication of

New Zidhnid Inxfifufe Science Congress. 487

scientific pai)ers of all kinds. Tliis was made possible by a statutory
grant of £500 per annum- quite ;i. bold step for a young colony, and one
which showed great foresiulit in the Government of the day. The publi-
cations were to consist of Tnuimctions of the New Zealand Institute and
Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute; the latter was to give a
current abstract of the proceedings of the incorporated bodies and the
former to consist of selected papers read before them. These two publi-
cations are issued in one \'()lume under the title Transactions and Proceed-
ings of the New Zealand Institute, which, in citation, is usually limited to
Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, as the Proceedings are at best
of mere local or e])hcmeral interest. So far fifty volumes have been
published — i.e.. a. volume every year since 1869.

In addition to publishing scientific papers and forming a library, the
Institute at first had control of the Colonial Museum, the Colonial Labora-
tory, and the meterological records. All the above were under the
direction of Dr. Hector, wlio was also Director of the Geologic^il
Survey.

The inaugural meeting of the New Zealand Institute was held on the
evening of the 4th August, 1868, " when " (so read the minutes of the
meeting) "' many members of various local societies for the promotion of
art and science assembled to listen to the inaugural address of the
Governor,'" who at that time was ex officio President of the Institute.
In his prefatory remarks His Excellency, referring to the presence of so
many members of the Legislature while an important debate was in
progress in the House of Representatives, said their presence was " a proof
that the attractions of iiitellect and science could even triumph over the
excitement of politics." After His Excellency had delivered his address,
which may be seen in \()hiin(' 1 of the Transactions of the New Zealand
Institute, Mr. Fox delivered a truly eloquent speech. I should like to
cjuote it in full, but must be content with a few extracts. Everywhere,
he said, describing what he had seen during his recent visit to Europe
and Asia, the mighty developments of Western civilization were marvellous.
It was something to see in Egypt — the cradle of learning, and the tomb
of a past civilization — Western Europe taking back to her the results of
a little seed which ages ago had been sown on the banks of the mighty
Nile. In Greece the same metamorphosis was in progress. Rome, too,
was being elevated from its ruins. We in New Zealand were not
behindhand, the speaker declared, but were engaged in the heroic work
described by Lord Bacon wt» were here to lay the basis of a true
civilization ; luit only to subdue nature and till the soil, but, impelled
by Anglo-Saxon ardour and energy, to develop all that was worthy of
development.

The first volume (jf the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute
appeared, in May, 1869. In the preface is a list of thirty-one subjects
which the Editor sviggested should be dealt with by the various incorporated
societies. Most of these subjects are strictly utilitarian — e.g., fisheries,
best localities and seasons for fishing ; habits of animals, especially of
those destriictive to trees and cultivated plants ; plants suitable for live
fences in this country ; experiments in the improved breeding of stock ;
plans and descri])tions of mines ; harbour improvements ; proposed lines
of railway ; machines and processes for washing sheep ; adulteration of
food. It rather looks as if the Manager were attemjiting to camouflage
the public ; even meteorological phenomena has the word " extraordinary "

488 Proceedings.

before it, while plants or animals to be of interest must be " rare." There
is hardly a mention of those subjects which have filled most of the fifty
volumes !

In the year 1903 Sir James Hector resigned the Directorship) of the
Museum and the Geological Survey, and witli these the position of Manager
of the Institute. For a number of years the members of the incorporated
societies had been dissatisfied with their scanty representation on the
Board of Governors and their right of nomination only. Consequently the
retirement of Hector gave a chance for the Institute to be reconstructed.
The matter was taken up, in the first place, by the Philosophical Institute
of Canterbury, which, supported by the other societies, succeeded in
getting a new Act passed in 1903 by which the major societies each
elected two Governors and the minor societies each one Governor. Thus
at the present time the nine affiliated societies are represented by thirteen
members, there are two ex officio members (His Excellency the Governor-
General and the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs), and there are four
members nominated by the Government. Instead of there being a permanent
Manager, the Governors must elect a President, who need not of necessity
be one of themselves. The above and other regulations which need not
be detailed put the New Zealand Institute on an entirely new footing.
No longer was the policy to be directed entirely from Wellington ; no
longer was the supreme power to be in the hands of one alone — no matter
how capable — but the whole Dominion could take a hand ; in short, from
autocratic the Institute became democratic.

The first President of the reconstructed Institute was the late Captain
F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. What he has done for New Zealand science need
not be told to a Christchurch audience. He was succeeded by the late
Sir James Hector, F.R.S., a fitting compliment to one Avho had virtually
founded the Institute, raised it to a proud position amongst the learned
societies of the world, and gained an honoured name amongst the scientific
men of the last century. Next came the Hon. G. M. Thomson, F.L.S.,
whose connection with the Institute dates from 1872. He has published
many excellent papers, both zoological and botanical, one of the latter,
dealing with the pollination of New Zealand plants, being a classic.
Further, above all, in season and out of season has Mr. Thomson striven
to advance the cause of science. Then the late Mr. Augustus Hamilton
occupied the chair, a man oF wide knowledge with many scientific interests ;
the author, too, of that s!)lendid pioneer work Maori Art. Then came
New Zealand's premier botanist, Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., who has
been a member of the Institute since its foundation, and whose first paper
in the Transactions appeared in 1871, in the fourth volume. But not in
pure science alone is Cheeseman truly great ; under considerable difficul-
ties he has built up the admirable Auckland Museum. After Cheeseman
came Professor Charles Chilton, D.Sc, C.M.Z.S. Since he first joined the
Institute in 1881 he has year by year added to the world's knowledge of
the Crustacea, so that now he is the foremost authority of the day on that
group so far as the great Southern Hemisphere is concerned. Mr. Donald
Petrie, M.A., was the next President. He has done much for the Institute.
Paper after paper shedding a flood of light on the New Zealand flora he has
produced since the year 1879. He and the Hon. G. M. Thomson were
the first to explore Stewart Island scientifically. Furthermore, Mr. Petrie
is the leading authoritv on the classification of New Zealand grasses.
Then (1916-17) Professor W. B. Benham, F.R.S., occupied the chair. He

New Zeahnid /iis/i/i/fe Science Crjrif/ress. 489

was the first representative of our men of science who had come much
later into the Institute than the foregoing. His scientific work in New
Zeahmd broke new ground wlien lie carefully studied the earthworms and
through this study threw great light on the relation of the New Zealand
biological world to that of South America.

Perhaps the most noticeable change brought about since the reorganiza-
tion of the New Zealand Institute has been a. considerable improvement
both in the matter and in the mode of presentation of the papei's published.
The greater number of the papers which have appeared of recent years
would have been accepted by the scientific journals of Great Britain or
America, if the numerous papers strictly of local interest be excluded from
this estimate.

This too brief history of the New Zealand Institute has cleared the
path for an account of what the Institute has done towards advancing
science. This can be seen, in part, by giving a few statistics regarding
the papers which have appeared in the fifty volumes of the T rem met ions.

To begin with, the total number of papers in the fifty volumes is 3,117,
making about sixty contributions each year. The above estimate does not
include abstracts of communications published in the Proceediitgs ; if such
are considered, the contributions of all kinds exceed four thousand. The
whole of these papers, many the results of months of toil, have been pro-
duced without pay of any kind, while many have represented no small
monetary outlay. Only a few of the authors were professional scientihc
men ; most were daily engaged in other pursuits — they had onlv their few
hours of leisure for study and research. All classes of the comnninitv have
borne their share in the labour of love : there are contributions 1)V more
than one Governor of the colony ; there are others by working-men. Class
distinctions cease to be in the pages of these historic volumes. 'J'aking
the papers themselves, there are certainly various degrees of merit. Some
have gained a place in the select scientific literature of the Avorld- no
mean achievement — while a few should never have been published.
Generally speaking, there are not many papers which do not fill a want,
and as a whole they shed a strong light upon the natural history of New
Zealand, and tell not a little regarding the general progress of the Dominion.
Surely no five hundred pounds yearly of the people's money has been spent
more profitably or more for the benefit of the people themselves than
that which has produced these fifty volumes.

If an analysis be made of the contents of the fifty volumes, using the
same classification of subjects as in the index to the first forty volumes,
except that the two headings " Trade " and " Economics " are united
under the latter name, the following is the result, the number after each
subject denoting the number of published contributions : Zoology, 1,143;
botany, 654 ; geology, 503 ; anthropology, 204 ; physics, including astro-
nomy and meteorology, 152 ; chemistry, 135 ; engineering, 76 ; mathe-
matics, 40 ; economics, 37 ; history, 34 ; presidential addresses, 29 ;
metaphysics, 22 ; medicine, 20 ; literature, 15 ; education, statistics, and
obituary notices, 12 each.

Certain of the above numbers do not reflect accurately the scientific-
output of members of the Institute. At times specially important ]:)a])ers
have been published in scientific journals of Great Britain. Geology since
the very early days of the colon}- has had State assistance, and much
research has found its way into Government publications. So, too, the
Departments of Agriculture and Lands have published a good deal which

490 Proceedings.

otherwise would have found its way into our Transactions. In the case
of anthropology, the excellent Polynesian Journal has published niucli
which otherwise would have come before^ our Institute.

A consideration of the statistics given above shows clearly that natural
history, using that term in a broad sense, fills the greater part of the
volumes. This was to be expected in a new land with both the fauna and
the flora so little investigated and containing so much that is endemic.
Also, if the papers on zoology and botany be referred to, it will be seen
that by far the greater part are devoted to classification. This must have
been so ; it is the natural e^•olutionary process in the history of biological
research the world over. But even in New Zealand this stage is passing
away, and in botany the ecological study of the vegetation as opj^osed to
the floristic study of the species is making headway, and is even being
applied to economic ends— another step in the evolution of a science. So,
too, in zoology, animal ecology, a more difficult study, is also coming to
the fore. Botany with its 654 papeis apparently makes a poor showing
alongside zoology with its 1,143 contributions. It must be remembered,
however, that there are many groups of animals, and frequently a workei-
confines himself to one group. Also, a considerable number of papers deal
with birds, a subject in which so many people take an interest who really
care little for science as a whole. As for chemistry and physics, which
make but a poor showing in the work of the New Zealand Institute, it must
be pointed out that little progress (;an be made in these sciences without
well-equipped chemical and physical laboratories and men specially trained
in such. Laboratories of this class are now attached to the various
University colleges, and chemical and physical contributions — the work of
trained students — are slowly but surely finding a jjlace in the Transactions.

The Transactions have not been the sole publication of the Institute,
by any means. Thus there are the magnificent volumes of Hamilton's
Maori Art ; Major Broun's Manual of the Coleopera and his three bulletins
on the same group ; H. N. Dixon's Studies in the Bryology of New Zealaiid
— an important revision of our moss-flora ; and Tregear's Manc/arera
Dictionary. Then, the Canterbury branch of the Institute has published
the Index Faunae Novae-Zeakonliae, and the admii-able Suhantarctic Islands-
of New Zealand, a work in two quarto volumes witli man}' beautiful
illustrations

The New Zealand Institute has control of tlie Hutton and the Hector
Memorial Funds. With regard to the former a bronze medal is awarded
every three years for origin;d research in New Zealand zoology, botany,
or geology. There is also a small income from the fund, from which grants-
are made for purposes of research. The Hector Fimd also supplies a medal.
but with this goes the yearly interest of the fund — some £45— as a prize.
Medal and prize are alloted yeaily, but each year to a difterent science.
six sciences being included. Thus the medal for any particular science
is awarded only every six years. Three Hutton and seven Hector medals
have been awarded up to the present time. These medals have already
done a good deal to stimulate^ research ; as }'ear succeeds year the value of
these awards will greatly increase.

The influence of the New Zealand Institute has been very considerable
on New Zealand science other tlum tliat under its actual control. There
is no Government Department connected in any way with science \\hicii
is not constantly indebted either to the ])ublications or libraries of tlif
Institute. The following important works would never have appeared

New Zeala/id Institute Science Congress. 491

had there been no New Zealaml Institute : Kirk's Forest Flora, Kirk's
Students' Flora, Cheeseman's Manual of the New Zealand Flora, and Suter's
Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca. So, too, with many imjwrtant papers
and reports issued by various Government Departments.

Certainly, training is given by the various University colleges in some
of the sciences, but the very nature of tlieir relation to that purely
examining body — the New Zealand University — reduces to a minimum
the value of these colleges as a training-ground for the all-important
scientific research. This crying want is supplied to some extent by the
New Zealand Institute, whose Transactions are open for papers from young
aspirants for scientific research if they appear to show a{)titude at all. Had
it not been for this, scientific career after career would have been stifled
at its birth.

The meetings, too, of the incorporated societies an' not mere gatherings
for specialists. They are open to the public, and popidar lectures are
frequently delivered by the leading scientific men of the Dominion. Nor
are the ordinary evenings devoted to original papers barren for the student
or even for the non-scientific listener. To hear a master of his subject
detailing the methods, objects, and results of his research is most inspiring.
Mere technical papers are taken as read ; any one is free to ask questions
after the reading of a paper, and illuminating discussions may ensue.
Finally, the student comes into personal touch witli those working at that
branch of science he would pursue if he knew how ; he is inspired b}^ the
enthusiasm of the older worker ; friendships beneficial to science may arise
which endure for life.

The various activities of the New Zealand Institute have been supported
by the statutory grant of £500 per annum, an amount deemed necessary
by the Government in 1868. However, the population of the Dominion
has greatly increased during the subsequent fifty-one years, and so, too,
in proportion the monetar}^ requirements of the Institute. So acute has
the position become that for some time ])ast it has been necessary to make
a levy of about £200 on the affiliated societies, who, with their resjjonsi-
bilities for their local museums or libraries, to say nothing of their other
activities, could ill bear the imposition of such a burden. Many papers of
great value await publication ; much work of national interest awaits its
initiation ; but there are hardly funds sufficient to publish the Transactions.
Happily, more than a gleam of hope appears. The Hon. Mr Russell is not
unmindful of the call of science ; full well does he know its inestimable
value to the nation. Already has he greatly assisted the Institute by
special grants for economic science, and now he has promised to do his
utmost to place the New Zealand Institute on a firm financial footing.
Tlius it seems not unlikely that this Congress heralds a new era of usefulness
for the Institute.

The New Zealand Institute possesses a library of scientific works, at
present housed in that worn-out wooden building — a true fossil — called
'■ the Dominion Museum." The Transactions of the New Zealand Institute
since their commencement have been sent to a great number of the leading
scientific bodies throughout the world. The.se in like manner send the
Institute their publications. It stands out clearly, then, that an important
collection of scientific literature is in the possession of the Institute, and that
it is being added to year by year. For years there have been no funds for
binding, the resources of the Institute having been strained to breaking-
jioint to pay the rapidly-increasing cost of its Transactions. The Museum

492 Proceedings.

autiioritiehi certainly do tlieir best to make the library available for
scientific \\(»rker.s, but any one who has occasion to use it knows that it is
of little benefit. This the Board of Governors fully realized some time ago,
and an offer was made by them to the Government, which was accepted,
to hand over the library as a nucleus of a real scientific library as soon as
a proper building was erected and a qualified librarian appointed. Nothing
has been done as yet — with a war raging it was not to be expected — but
we live in liope. With the power of exchange possessed by the New
Zealand Institute through its Transactions virtually all the publications
of every scientific society throughout the world could be acquired. But
this would not be enough, for equally important are the many scientific
journals which can only be acquired by purchase. Then there is the host
of books, constantly apjjearing, essential for scientific progress. Obviously,
the maintenance of such a library is far beyond the income of the Institute,
were that ({uadrupled. But the Institute could supply the lion's share
of the ac([uisitions. Much also could be done by the various scientific
Departments of the Government, whose libraries should also be added to this
central library. I do not know of anything that is so greatly needed for
scientific research as such a library, and if it were only of one-half the value
to the nation which I am claiming for it this evening no money should be
less grudged by the people, and no money would be better invested. As
it is, every serious worker must at his own expense greatly supplement
the scanty literature available ; this has been done for years willingly, and
it will continue to be done, but it does not seem to me an altogether
creditable state of affairs.

This fundamental question of an adequate scientific library leads me at
once to other as])irations of the New Zealand Institute — that body of
scientific folk, and believers in science, who are banded together to add some-
thing to human knowledge and to advance thereby the interests of this
glorious country of which they are citizens. Next to provision for the
library, the Institute desires recognition by the people of New Zealand as a
body devoted entirely to their interests, both material and intellectual — a
body ready at any time to advise the Government on scientific matters, and
to assist to the utmost in any national service for which science is required.

In the early days of the Institute most of the scientific workers were
amateurs. These, it is true, Avere endowed with the holy fire of enthusiasm,
but had their limitations nevertheless. At the present time highly trained
men — not holders of degrees merely, but men trained by years of experience
in research — most of them New Zealand born — are fully comjjetent to
undertake almost any scientific investigation. To one like myself, growing
old, it is a joy to see how many capable young men belonging to our
Institute have come to the front of recent years.

Before dealing specifically with certain branches of research which I
think might well be undertaken by members of the Institute, or others
in this country who ought to be members, I must say something regarding
the separation of science into the two classes, '' pure " and " applied," as
they are called, the former at best merely tolerated by the public, who value
a scientific discovery only if it has an evident practical bearing. This
state of mind would certainly kill all advance. If carried out for a suffi-
cient time throughout the world civilization would not merely remain at a
standstill, but deterioration would rapidly set in. The purely scientific
must come first, and the practical, without any special coddling by the
State, will assuredlv follow. The cure of an infectious disease is onlv the

New Z( aland Institute Science Congress. 493

last link — for tlu' tinn' Ixiiiu — in a long chain of researches nine-tenths of
which were purelv academic, hut eacli leading slowly but surely to the
final result. And this great wealth of research — apparently medical — was
tlie work of the biologist, the chemist, and the physicist. The electric
tram, the frozen lamb, the marconigram, the spraying of an apple-tree, the
moving picture, the field of turni})s — all these and far more of our every-
dav life are but the final -again I say, "for the time being" — practical
application of exact knowledge painfully accjuired by enthusiasts such as
i\Iichael Faraday — the mighty, the maker of history — with his £100 a year,
a room or two to live in, and coals and candles ! " Faraday's early investi-
gations on the chemical aspects of electrolysis," wrote in March, 1918,
Professor Pope, President of the Chemical Society, " and his studies on
magnetic induction, led immediately to the invention of the dynamo, and,
through Clerk Maxwell, to the introduction of wireless telegraphy. This
one branch of Faraday"s investigations, in point of fact, constitutes the
groundwork of the whole stupendous vista of results of the general intro-
duction of the electric current into modern life which is so familiar to
us all. Cavendish's early production of nitric acid by the passage of an
electric spark tlirough the air, reproduced on an enormously large scale,
is now furnishing Central Europe with the nitric acid without which no
explosives could be manufactured." The Faradays of the present day,
instead of being able to devote all their time to research, in order to get
tlieir dailv bread are forced to waste their time as teachers. For this fair
wages are available ; for the prosecution of pure science there is usually
nothing, unless temporarily, and tliat for inexperienced young men.

On this matter of pure and applied science let me ipiote a resolution of
the Inter- Allied Conference on International Scientific Organizations held
by the Royal Society during October, 1918. Thus the resolution runs :
'■ The Conference, being of opinion that all industrial, agricultural, and
medical progress depends on ])ure science, draws attention of the various
Governments to the importance of theoretical and disinterested researches,
which after the restoration of peace should be supported by large endow-
ments. The Conference urges siniilarly the creation of large laboratories
for experimental science, both private and national.""

NeAv Zealand is above all else a farming community. Many of Nature's
secrets of a hundred years ago are now the priceless possessions of man.
These when more generally a})plied than at present will make our fields
yield a much greater return. This would be a great advance, but without
the discovery of further fundamental principles, now unknown, agriculture
can only reach a stage far fronr perfection. Our scientific duty as a nation
is not only to apply to the best of our ability our present knowledge, but
by means of purely academic investigations to discover further funda-
mental principles on which the greatly improved farming of the future
will depend. Suppose, for example, such characters as we wished could
be bestowed at will u])on certain fodder plants or food plants — i.e., that
the plant-breeder could by methods now unknown create exactly the plant
suitable for a special environment, just as one can forge a special tool.
Experiments of seemingly the most worthless kinds in genetics might lay
the foundation for such knowledge, the value of which is beyond our wildest
dreams. Even open-air studies on the plants of bog, or lake, or forest, or
mountain-top well might lend valuable assistance.

Finally, with regard to the New Zealand Institute — and, indeed, with
regard to this Dominion's science in general- what should be some of our

494 Proceedings.

immediate aims, having regard to those special New Zealand problems
which early in this address I declared could only be carried out on New
Zealand soil ? In this farming community nothing more demands years
of close study than this soil itself. The world over, soil science, notwith-
standing many books on the subject, is in its infancy. Chemical analysis
of a soil, even were the methods for so doing far more satisfactory than
at present, is only one portion of the question. The extremely difficult
matter of soil-physics at once confronts the investigator. Then there is
the rich soil-flora and the rich soil-fauna. When more of a fundamental
character is known as to the relation of soil-physics, soil-chemistry, and soil-
biology to one another, then undoubtedly new methods of soil-utilization
will be in sight.

Turning to a very different matter, there is the science of economics —
really hardly a science as yet. A small coninmnity such as we are offers
material not too bulky to estimate rightly. The effect of our legislation
called " experimental," and of that which is non-experimental also, ought
to be gauged with fair ease. Problem after problem is offered, but all such
problems must be approached in the spirit of true science ; all political bias
must go to the winds ; doubt may unhesitatingly be felt for many accepted
dogmas ; the accurate methods of science must alone be used.

In the domain of anthropology there is no need always to confine one's
investigations to primitive races. Amongst the settlers of a new land
evolution in certain directions goes on apace. The question of dialect
among the people of New Zealand would form a valuable study. The
mere record of how various words of the English language are generally or
occasionally pronounced in various parts of the Dominion would make a
beginning in the study of that gradual change of dialect which is taking
place, but which is far more noticeable by the old than by the young. The
Oxford Dictionary lays down the so-called correct pronounciation of each
word. But no one follows its dictum. On the other hand, according to
its tenets the most cultured are constant sinners.

Education— still far awav from being a science — should be approached
by true scientific methods. At present the best that can be got are
opinions more or less biased. The teacher of classics of the present day
will explain that Latin affords the perfect mental training : the school-
master in Queen Elizabeth's time would explain that it was necessary to
read and write the Latin tongue fluently, since it was the written language
of the learned. Many subjects are taught not because any one reaUv
knows that they are essential, but because it is the fashion to teach them ;
and so too with the methods of teaching. Certainly the sooner education
becomes an exact science the better for the nation, so that less time be
Avasted in teaching useless subjects or using bad methods. The use of
standards in the elementary school may be necessary, but it is biologically
unsound, as it assumes that all the scholars are equal in intellect. At one
time — and the custom is not extinct by any means here in New Zealand —
every girl in an English middle-class school was taught music, no matter
the degree of tone-deafness with which she was afflicted. How many,
too, I wonder, are there in our schools who are forced to study subjects
for which they have no aptitude t

There is room for much research in New Zealand history, young thougli
our country may be. The splendid gift of his library to the people of the
Dominion by the late Mr. .\. H. Turnbull should certainly stimulate historical
research. With tliis end in view we may cordially welcome the establish-
ment of an historical section by the Wellington branch of our Institute.

New Zealand Institute Science Congres!<. 195

One more example out of the many subjects cryinji' aloud for research
m this country and I have done. Our cultivated jilants of all kinds are
subject to attacks of parasitic fungi, the majority of which are considered
identical with those affecting similar plants in other countries. For the
suppression of such fungi many fungicides have Ix-en devised, especially in
France and America. Now, that these methods have been successful on
trees in the country of their origin does not say that siniilar methods will
serve equally well here. A certain apple-tree growing in California will
probably differ from the same variety grown on the clay soil of Nelson.
The efiect of the fungus on such a New Zealand tree and the life-history
of that fungus must be studied in New Zealand ; so, too, must be investi-
gated the use of the fungicide. This method of attacking the pests
of fruit-trees bv means of fungicides and insecticides costs the State of
California alone about £400,000 per annum. At best it is a rather clumsy
way of dealing with the pests. It is exactly a case in point with regard
to pure and applied science. Pure science paved the way by first classifying
and then finding out the life-histories of the fungi ; pure science had also
to devise by aid of much experiment the beautiful technique with regard
to pure cultures, and so on, which can now be learnt in the laboratory.
Then pure science devised fungicides, and finally applied science is brought
into the orchard in the form of the spray pump and its contents. But
is science content to rest at this stage ? Is she not eagerly seeking to find
out more about the relation of fungus and host, more about the cause of
parasitism ? Here comes in the plant-physiologist, who seeks to find out
more about the actual life jjrocesses of the plant, whose ultimate aim is
perhaps to discover what is life itself. This latter problem seems well-
nigh hopeless, but long before the problematical success is achieved science
will know so much about the plant that new methods of combating disease
will be in the hands of every orchardist. The Cawthron Institute of
Scientific Research could easily spend all its income on investigations with
regard to plant-diseases, but it would not be performing its full scientific
duty if it were not carrying out plant-physiological researches with regard
to the living tree as it grows in the orchard, and thus working not for the
present day alone but for posterity. This, I take it, is also the attitude of
the New Zealand Institute and should be the attitude of this Dominion.
Not for the present alone but for the future must this New Zealand of ours^
our beloved country^ — strive with might and main if she is to become truly
great.

496 Proceed in r/s.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

Eight general meetings of the society were held during the year 1918, at
which the following papers and addresses were read : — (24th April) '"Control
of Milk-supply," by Mr. R. L. Andrew : (22nd May) " Discovery and
Rediscovery of Wellington," by Mr. Elsdon Best : (26th June) " Notes on
the Rate of Growth of New Zealand Native Trees," by Mr. E. Phillips
Turner : (24th July) Presidential address, " The Need for Research,"' bv
Mr. G. Hogben ; " New Species of Mollusca from various Dredgings taken
of¥ the Coast of New Zealand, the Snares Islands, and the Bounty Islands,"
by Miss M. K. Mestayer ; '" Stephen Island, a Natural Sanctuary for Land-
animals," by Dr. J. Allan Thomson : (28th August) " Mountains." by Dr.
C. A. Cotton : (25th September) " The Nature of X-ray Spectra," bv
Professor H. Clark : (18th December) '' The Distillation of Waikaia Shales/"
by Mr. W. Donovan ; " New Zealand Clays," by Mr. P. G. Morgan ;
'' Graphs showing the Rate of Growth of New Zealand Trees," by Mr.
E. Phillips Turner ; " The Edible Eish, &c., of Taui)o-nui-a-Tia," bv the
Rev. H. J. Fletcher.

At the annual meeting, which was held on the 18th December (having
been postponed owing to the epidemic), the annual report and balance-
sheet w^ere adopted.

Abstract of Ajjnual Report.

Me'iihership. — The roll of members as on the 20th September, 1918, stood us
follows : Life members, 10 ; ordinary members, 164, of whom 23 are on active service.
Thirteen new members were elected during the year, six members resigned, and four
members died, of whom two were on active service.

Roll of Honour. — The following names were added to the roll of lionour during the
year : Sergeant-major L. J. Comrie and Dr. W. M. Thomson.

Grant to the Astronomical Section. — During the year a sum of £8 l(is. 6d. was paid
OR behalf f)f the Astronomical Section for mounting the King telescope, and the section
was further authorized to incur a liability to an amount not exceeding £20 for the
<'urrent year.

Ra)n<ai/ Memorial Fnnd. — The C'ouucil gave a sum of live guineas to the Ramsay
Memorial Fund.

Hainilloii Memorial Prize. — -Pursuant to a recommendation of the Committee of
the Hamilton Memorial Fund that the balance of the fund should be invested by the
New Zealand Institute, and that each year one half of the interest should be added to
the i)rincipal. the other half of the interest to be devoted to a jirize to be known as the
Hamilton ])tize, the Council at its meeting on the 28rd .January adopted the recom-
mendation, and formulated a number of conditions relating to the award of the prize.
The i(>solution was comminiicated to the New Zealand Institute, the Hoard of Governors
of wliich lias authorized its Standing Committee to co-operate with the Wellington
Fhilosophical Society in arranging the terms upon which the balance of the Hamilton
.Memorial Fund ,sii(nild be handetl over in trust to the New Zealand Institute.

Fellowship of the Xetr Zealand Institute. — Resolutions of the Committee of the
Board of Governors on the subject of the fellowship on the New Zealand Institute were
considered, and were afterwards ajiproved in an amended form.

R(s,iirch fJrant. — An announcement was received from the Secretary of the New
Zealand Institute that the sum of £.">0(l had been voted to the Institute as a grant for
research work. The announcement was circulated anu)ng the members of the society.
Advice was received from the New Zealand Institute that tiic ajjjilication from Professor
Rastorfield for £'ii} for carrying out investigations on the wax content of brown coals,
.; ml froii) Messrs. I ,a Trobe and .^danis for a ftuther €7.") in Mid of the cost of construction

Wellington Philo!<ophicul iSocidy. 497

of a tide -predicting machine, weie recomnienclcd for approval. The Council was later
informed by the New Zealand Institute that the Minister of Internal Affairs had
declined to approve of the Institute's recommendation in regard to the grant to Messrs.
La Trobe and Adams.

Formation oj nn Historical Section.— <dn tlie 28th August it was resolved that an
Historical Section should Ixj formed. Since that date one meeting of the new section
has been held, and a number of new members have joined the society as a result of
the formation of the section.

Library Account. — The library was credited during the year with £89 los. 7d.,
which, together with a balance of £68 Is. 7d. from las+ year's accovmt, makes a total
credit of £107 17s. 2d. The expenses amounted to £1S I4s. Id., leaving a credit balance
of £89 3s. Id.

The following officers and Council were elected for the vear 1919 :
President }i. W. Holmes, I.S.O., M.lnst.C.E. Vice-Presidents— -C. E.
Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S. ; J. Allan Thomson. M.A.. D.Sc, F.G.S. Council—
B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S. ; E. Best ; C. A. Cotton, D.Sc. F.G.S. :
W. Donovan, M.Sc. ; T. H. Easterfield. M.A., Ph.D. : F. W. Fiirkert.
Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. ; A. C. Gifford, M.A., F.R.A.S. : S. H. Jenkinson : H. B.
Kirk. M.A. : E. K. Lomas, M.A., M.Sc. : P. G. Morgan, M.A., F.G.S.
Secretari/ and Treasurer — C. G. G. Berry. Auditor -M. R. Dymock,
F.I.A.N.Z. Representatives on the New Zealand Institute — T. H Easter-
field. M.A., Ph.D. ; H. B. Kirk, M.A.

ASTRONOMICAL S FACTION.

The Observatory was open to the public early in the year, but has been clo.sed since
the 4th April owing to the erection of the King telescoiie and the alterations entailed
to the Ob.servatory. The 5 in. Cooke has been removed to the Hector Observatory and
stored, while the King telescojJe has been erected in the section's observatory, the
erection and adjustment being carried out by the Director of Instruments (Dr. Adams)
and members of the committee. It has been found necessary to renew the sliding
shutter, and an estimate is being prepared for the work. Urgent repairs to the roof
and dome were carried out during November, 1917.

The following papers were read before the section during the year 1918 : — (5tli June)
"Is Earth-rotation the Cause of the Ocean Currents ?"" by A. W. Burrell : (3rd .luly)
"New Stars," by A. C. Gifford : (7th August) " Occultation by Venus of 7 Aquarii"'
by C. E. Adams : (4th September) " A Graphical Method of Predicting Eclipses and
dccultations," by D. M. Y. Sommerville : (2nd October) "A Novel Star Atlas," by
C. W. Adams ; " Maori Star Lore," by Elsdon Best.

Committee and Officers for 1919.— Chairman— k. C. (4iffoid. M.A., F.R.A.S. Vice-
Chuirmen —J). M. Y. Sommerville, M.A., D.Sc.; W. S. La Trobe, M.A. Committee—
E. Parrv, R.Sc, M.I.E.E. ; C. P. Powles ; H. Clark, M.S., Ph.D.; C. Monro Hector,
M.D., B.Sc, F.R.A.S. ; G. S. H6oper ; R. D. Thompson, M.A. Director and Cvrator
of Instruments— C. E. Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S. Hon. Trca-^vnr—V. E. Adams, D.Sc.
F.R.A.S. Hon. Sc"rptari/—C. G. G. Berrv.

TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION.

The following papers were read during the year : — (8th May) Inaugural address.
"Some Consideration on National Efficiency." by S. H. Jenkinson : (12th June) "The
Electrification of Railways," by Evan Parry : (10th July) " The Functions of the State
in Relation to Technical Education," by W. S. La Trobe: (14th August) ■" The
Distillation of Coal and the Resulting By-products," by Professor T. H. Easterfield :
(9th October) " Electric -arc Welding," by M. Cable: (llth Se])tember) "Littoral
Drift on New Zealand Coasts," by R. W. Holmes: (llth December) "The Suige-
<'hamber Problem " and " Control of Floods," by E. Parry ; " Compression Tests on
Papa Concrete," by F. Kissel.

The officers for the year 1919 were elected as follows : Chairman- — S. H. Jenkinson.
Vice-Chnirmen — W. S. La Trobe, M.A. ; A. J. Paterson. Committee- — R. W. Holmes,
M.lnst.C.E.; H. Sladden, member of Survevor's Board; H. Clark, M.S.. Ph.D.;
J. S. Maclaurin. D.Sc, F.C.S. ; F. \V. Fnrkeit. Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Ih^n. Srcnian/—
A. C. Owen.

498 Procfediiigs.

(JEULOCJICAL SPJCTION.

The following papers were read during the year 1917-18 : — (19th September, 1917/
'" The Geology of the Papakaio District," by G. H. Uttley ; " A Comparison of the
New Zealand and Western North American Gretaceous and Tertiary Formations," by
P. G. Morgan: (17th October. 1917) •■Natural Regions m New Zealand," by E. K.
Loraas : (loth May, 1918) "" The Geomorphology of the Coastal District of South-
western Wellington." by C. A. Cotton : (19th June, 1918) " Notes on the Post-Tertiary
History of New Zealand," by J. Henderson: (17th July, 1918) "The Origin of the
Amuri Limestone and Flint -beds," and " Notes on the Geology of Stephen Island,"
by J. A. Thomson ; " Permo-Carboniferous or Maitai Rocks of the East Coast of the
South Island," by P. G. Morgan : (21st August. 1918) " The Post-Tertiary History of
the Ohau River and of the Adjacent Coastal Plain, Horowhenua County. North
Island," by G. L. Adkin : (18th September, 1918) •■ The Geology of the Southern
Wairarapa District," by J. A. Thomson ; "" Further Notes on the Horowhenua Coastal
Plain and the Associated Physiographic Features," by G. L. Adkin : (16th October,
1918) ■• The Significant Features of Reef -bordered Coasts," by W. M. Davis ; " Tertiarj-
(ieology of the Waitaki Valley between Duntroon and Kurow," by G. H. Uttley.

The officers for the year 1919 were elected as follows : Chairman — E. K. Lomas,
M.A., M.Sc, F.R.G.S. Vke-ChuirmaH—Q,. H. Uttley, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S. Committee—
W. Donovan, M.Sc. ; J. Henderson, M.A., D.Sc. ; R. W. Holmes, I.S.O., M.Inst.C.E. ;
P. G. Morgan, M.A., D.Sc. F.G.S. ; J. A. ThoTiison, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S. Hon.
Secretary — C. A. Cotton.

HISTORKJAL SECTION.

An Historical Section of the Philosophical Society of Wellington was formed, and
officers appointed, on the 10th September. 1918, its objects being — the advancement
of the knowledge of the history, economics, and ethnology of New Zealand and the
adjacent regions ; the study of history and economics in general ; the promotion of
the claims of history, economics, and ethnology in education ; the affording of assistance
to the Board of vScience and Art in the collection of historical material.

The following papers were read during the year 1918: (15th October) "Native
Tradition of the l5eath of Marion du Fresne at Bay of Islands in 1772," " First Visit of
Captain Cook, and of Du Surville, in 1769, &c.," by Elsdon Best ; " Place-names in
New Zealand, with Special Reference to Banks Peninsula," by J. C. Andersen.

The officers for the j'ear 1919 were elected as follows : Chairman — Elsdon Best.
Vice-Chair man— T. W. Porter. C.B. Committee— G. Prendergast Knight, LL.D. ; Rev.
Father Gilbert; F. P. Wilson, M.A.. F.R.E.S. : Charles Wilson; F. E. Edwards. Hon.
Serretari/ — Johannes C. Andersen.

Auckland Institute. 499

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.

At the annual meeting, 24th February, 1919, the annual report of the
Council was read and adopted.

Abstract.

In presenting the fifty-first annual report of tlie Aiukland Institute and Museum
tlie Council can once more direct attention to the steady jirogress of the society, and
the increasing interest taken in its operations by the community.

It is also satisfactory to state that this year has witnessed the successful completion
of the attempt to obtain a new site for the Museum, in a situation where it is possible
to erect a buildmg free from the many drawbacks and deficiencies of the existing site,
and where there is not only room for present needs, but ample space for future extension.

Members. — Maiialy through the activity of the Hon. E. Mitchelson and Mr. H. E.
Vaile, forty-eight new members have been elected during the year. On the other hand,
tliirty-six names have been withdrawir from the roll — eighteen from death, eleven by
resignation, and seven by non-payment of subscription for more than two consecutive
years. The net gain has thus been twelve, the number on the roll at the jiresent time
being 462. It may be incidentally mentioned that not one of the other societies
incorporated with the New Zealand Institute has a members roll of over 20U.

The number of members removed by death is far above the average, and includes
several who have long been m association with the Institute. Mr. C. Cooper served
upon the Council from 1886 to 1894, and contributed several pa^iers on conchological
subjects ; Mr. T. Buddie, Mr. M. Casey, Mr. J. W. Ellis, Mr. H. Larkin, and Mr. H. H.
Metcalfe have all been of considerable service to the society in one direction or another.
It should be mentioned that the Institute still retains on its roll, as dormant honorary
members, all tho.se of its subscribers who are at present serving their King and country
in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, the number of such being twenty-one.

Finance. — The total revenue of the Working Account, excluding the balance in
hand at the beginning of the year, has been £1,678 13s. 9d. This is a little under last
year's amount, the difference being altogether due to a temporary delay in the payment
of certain items of interest on investments. Examinmg the various headings, it will be
seen that the members' subscriptions have yielded £437 17s., against £420 contributed
last year, and being the largest sum yet received from that source of income. The
receipts from the Museum Endowment, consisting of rents and interest, have amounted
to £656 los. 6d., the previous year's contribution being £713 12s. lid. The invested
funds of the Costley Bequest have provided £432 17s. 6d., the amount for the previous
year being £453 18s. Id. The total expenditui-e has been £1,717 6s. 9d., being some-
what smaller than last year's amount, which totalled £1,763 lis. 4d. It is satisfactorj'^
to state that a sum of £200 has been jjaid in final liquidation of the cost of fitting up
the foreign ethnographic hall. The cash balance in hand at the present time amoimts
to £127 7s. 6d.

There is little to rej^ort respecting the invested fimds of the Institute, which have
been increased during the year by the sum of £76 Os. 2d., mostly obtained from the sale
of some small endowments. The total amount now stands at £22,945 13s. 9d., almost
the whole of which is satisfactorily placed in specially selected mortgages or municipal
debentures.

Members are aware that during the last session of Parliament the Institute
submitted a petition praying for the refund of a sum of £912, paid under protest as
mortgage-tax, on the ground that the income of the Institute, as a scientific body
not carried on for private pecuniary profit, was not liable for taxation. The Petitions
Committee upheld the contention of the Institute, and recommended the petition to
the " favourable consideration of the Government." Notwithstanding this, the Cabinet
has decided that " after careful consideration, it was regretted tliat no action could be
taken in the matter."

Meetings. — At the beginning of the session a Meetings Committee was appointed
to ascertain how far the Institute could take a more active interest in the dissemination
of scientific knowledge by means of lectures. After consideration it was decided to
increase the number of lectures, and also to provide, in a tentative manner, for the
introduction of courses of lectures in cases where it was obvious that the subject was

500 Proceedings.

too extensive for jiroper treatment within the scope of a single lecture. These changes
proved decidedly poijular, and led to a considerable increase in the attendance. The
following is a list of the lectures and papers contributed : "' The Storj' of the Con-
stellations," by G. Aldridge ; " Alcohol in its Industrial and Scientific Aspects," by
A. Wyllie, Electrical Engineer to the City of Auckland ; " Recent Scientific Thought
concerning Light and the Ether, Part 1," by E. V. Miller ; " Recent Scientific Thought
concerning Light and the Ether, Part II," by E. V. Miller ; ■" The Theatre and Stage
Effects in Shakespear's Time," by Professor C. W. Egerton, M.A. ; " Combustion,
Part I," by Professor F. P. Worley, M.Sc. ; "" Combustion, Part II," by Professor F. P.
Worley, M.Sc. ; " House-flies and Public Health," by Professor J. C. Johnson, M.Sc. ;
'■ The Fossiliferous Beds at Kawa, Port Waikato," by J. A. Bartrum ; " New Fossil
Mollusca," by J. A. Bartrum ; " Some Recent Additions to the New Zealand Flora,"
by T. F. Cheeseman ; "" Contributions to a Knowledge of the New Zealand Flora,
Part VI," by T. F. Cheeseman ; " Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants," by
I). Petrie ; " A New Variety of Pteris ynacilenta," by H. Carse.

Library. — Last October, when it became evident that the end of the war was
drawing near, an unusually large order was sent to the society's London agents. The
books may be expected about the middle of March or early in April, and will be
welcomed by frequenters of the library. It is hoped to forward another order shortly
after the arrival of the first. The magazines and serial publications subscribed to
have been regularly received, and made available for the use of members. A consider
able expendituie has been incurred in binding the back numbers of these publica
tions, over sixty volumes having been placed in the library from that source alone.
The usual presentations and exchanges have been received from foreign societies, and
several donations from private individuals have been added to the library.

No department of the Institute suffers more from the want of room than the
library, and now that the purchase of books has been resumed the need of accommo-
dation will soon become a burning question.

Museum. — The recent ej^idemic of influenza has greath' affected the attendance
at the Museum. In the first place, it necessitated the closing of the institution from
the 3rd November to the 1st December, or nearly a full month ; and after the
reopening it was at least another month before the attendance became normal. Taking
the Sunday visitors first, the register kept by the attendant shows that 20,842 people
entered the building on that day, being an average of 453 for each Sunday. The
greatest attendance was 934 on the 7th July, and the smallest 75 on the 28th April,
an exceedingly wet day. On the eight chief holidays of the year the total number of
visitors was 6,801, being a daily average of 850. The largest attendance on any single
holiday was 1,246 on Labour Day, closely followed by 1,232 on King's Birthday, and
1,145 on Easter Monday. On ordinary week-days the visitors can only be occasionally
counted ; but the daily average is believed to be not less than 200, which would make
a total of 55,000, after deducting the days on which the Museum was closed on account
of the epidemic. Adding to this number that already given for Sundays and holidays,
the total number of visitors for the whole year can be stated at 82,643. Last year the
estimate was 87,350.

In the present congested state of a large portion of the Museum it is difficult to
make any satisfactory progress, or to exhibit more than a small proportion of the
additions that are regularly being received. A considerable amount of work has been
done in the Maori Hall in the direction of rearranging the larger carvings on the
eastern wall. By erecting a new framework over the show-cases space has been obtained
for the exhibition of several fresh carvings of interest, while the general appearance
has been niuch improved. During the coming season it is intended to carry out a
similar improvement on the western side of the hall. It should be stated that the
labelling of the Maori Hall has been practically completed, only a few recent additions
being now without printed descriptive labels.

Numerous additions and donations have been received ; but only the more
important can be mentioned here. Prominent is a magnificent j)are. or carved
architrave for the doorway of a Maori house, evidently of great age, and in perfect
condition. It was dug up in a peat swamp in the Hauraki Plains, and has been
deposited for a long period by the finder, Mr. L. Carter, together with several other
interesting articles.

An ancient house-carving, found in the mud of a branch of the Kaipara River,
and presenting several unusual features, has been kindly donated by Mr. A. S. Bankart.
It is presumed to be the work of the now extinct Waiohua Tribe, which once occupied
the whole of the district between the Auckland Isthmus and the Kaipara River.

Other noteworthy additions to the ethnographical collections comprise several
valuable carvings deposited by Mr. A. Eady, who has already placed many specimens

^[iicl.id ihI liislil'iite. 501

in the Museum ; a fine carved burial-chest, ituicliascd fiuin Mi. K. S]Kincr- : a lonsidoi-
able number of Maori and Polynesian articles ])iesentcd by Mr. (I. Oraham, who
for many years has been a constant contributor to the Miiseuni ; a collection of 10!)
Melanesian and Polynesian sjjecimens purchased fi'om Archdeacon ('oniins : aii<l. linally.
an elaborate golddacquered Japanese cabinet presented by Mr. H. Shaw.

Among the war relics presented during the year the first place must be given to an
interesting collection formed by Mi'. ('. J. Parr. f'.M.G., during his recent visit to the
western front, and which includes several noteworthy artic'les. Several contributions of
value have also been received from Colonel Boscawen, ]\1r. H. Norton. Mr. 1'. V-. Calver.
and others.

\% Among the zoological specimens the following may be mentioned : An excellent
skin of a lion, from a specimen that died at the Onehunga Zoo, presented by the pro-
prietor, Mr. J. J. Boyd ; a specimen of the sooty tern {Sterna ful'Kjiiiom), driven in b\
the cyclonic storm on the 20th March, and ])resented by Mr. H. V. Smith. This hird
has not been previouslj^ noticed on the mainland of New Zealand. The severe weathei
experienced during the whole of the month of July drove in many thousands of oceanic
dove-petrels, birds very seldom seen on the mainland. Through the kindness of
several correspondents in the countiy the Museum has received an excellent series of
these i^retty little birds.

In the natural-history de])artment Mr. (.'riffin has completed the elaborate grou|i
illustrating the breeding habits of the black-fronted tern (Hierua frovkili-s), referred to
in last year's report as being under 2ireimration, and it is now on exhibition. He has
also mounted in excellent style the head of the well-known racehorse Carbine, which
has been presented to the Museum by the Auckland Racing Club. At i))esent he is
engaged in setting up a remarkably fine specimen of the sea-leojiaid, stranded some
little time ago in the Manukau Harbour. Various other natural-history s^iecimens
have been jjrepared and momited during the year, in addition to work in othei-
departments of the Museum.

Drawbacks and Deficiencies of the Present Museum. — In many successive annual
reports it has been the duty of the Council to speak more o7- less ojienly in regard to
the limitations and deficiencies of the present buildings, and to show how much these
have interfered with the work of the Museum, and have stood in the way of its ])roper
expansion. Now that there are prospects of better accommodation in the future it
seems advisable to describe shortly the obstacles that should be removefl. and the most
desirable improvements to be effected.

In the first place, there is no department of the Museum that has sufficient room
for exhibition purposes. With regard to the ethnographical collections, the Curator
has frequently pointed out how greatly the teaching value of the Maori portion would
be improved, and its appearance enhanced, if it were possible to remove the carved
houses, canoes, and other large objects from their jjresent quarters and place them in
a separate hall, whei'e they could be treated as occupying the central courtyard of a
Maori village, similar to one of those that in past days stood on the shore of the Waite-
mata Harbour. Similarly, the l*olynesian collection is obviously overcrowded, although
the visitor may not know that all recent collections are packed away in store-boxes.

Turning to the natural-history department, a glance at the show-case containing
the New Zealand birds will ])rf)ve that no space remains for further additions. The
preparation of special groups illustrating the life-history of New Zealand birds, which
have proved to be such pojiular exhibits, has had to be suspended, there being no
available space in which to place the show-cases. A small amount of room has been
reserved for the collection of fishes, now being formed, but with that exception there is
no unfilled space. Yet in some sections, such as insects and other invertebrates, hardly
anything has been done. No attempt has yet been made to form a botanical museum.
The geological and mineralogical collections require many additions, and the substitution
of better specimens for most of those exhibited.

One of the most disturbing facts connected with the present overcrowded con-
dition of the Museum is that several large collections of natural-history specimens at
piesent in the hands of private owners would be gladly jiresented if there was a reason-
able probability that such could be suitably exhibited, and made available for scientific
study and research. These collections have been ])atiently formed by the labour of
many years, and it would be little less than a calamity if th(> chance of obtaining them
for Auckland should be lost.

The present want of accommodation and equipment for collecting, research, ami
the convenience of visitors is a most serious drawback. The Museum lias no proper
storerooms ; no accommodation for students who may wish to make use of the collec-
tions ; no rooms in which specimens can be sorted, examined, and determined, or packed
away as duplicates. There is no inquiry-room where strangers in search of information
can be received and their questions answered ; nor are there any retiring-rooms where

602 Proceedings.

visitors can leave their belongings, or have an opportunity of consuming a hasty lunch.
All progressive Museums provide the above adjuncts, and their want has long been felt
in Auckland. To sum up, no satisfactory j^rogress in the Museum can be hoped for
until these drawbacks and deficiencies are removed. This can only be done in a much
larger, better planned, and more completely equipped building.

The Need for a New Building. — In last year's report the Council showed that the
existing site of the Museum was not large enough for present requirements, to say
nothing of future needs. It was also proved that the cost of enlarging the site by the
purchase of adjoining land was altogether beyond the means of the Institute, even if
there was any prospect of financing a scheme involving the purchase of expensive city
jjroperty as well as the erection of new buildings. The inevitable conclusion was the
removal of the Museum from its ])resent position. After much consideration it was
decided to a])ply to the City Council for a site on Observatory Hill, in the Auckland
Domain, a situation which possesses the fundamental advantages of room for future
expansion, decreased risk of fire, and freedom from dust and smoke. The City Council,
desirous to assist the Institute in its search for a new home, unanimously agreed to give
the necessary permission, subject to the Council of the Institute promoting any legisla-
tion that might be required. The result of this action was rejiorted to the last annual
meeting, and was confirmed by a very large majority.

As the solicitors to both the City Council and the Institute were of opinion that a
validating Act was necessary, arrangements were at once made for the drafting of such,
the terms being agreed upon at a conference of the two bodies. Under this Act power
is given to sell the present site and apply the proceeds towards the erection of a new
Museum in the Domain ; while the City Council receives authority to lease to the
Institute, at a nominal rent, an area of nearly 3 acres on Observatory Hill. It is also
provided that the Mayor, ex officio, and two .members of the City Council annually
a])pointed shall in future rejiresent the city on the Council of the Institute.

The Act, which bears the title of " The Auckland Institute and Museum
Site Empowering Act." was placed in the charge of Mr. C. .1. Parr, C.jNI.G., and,
being practically unopposed, had a rapid passage through Parliament. It has since
received the Governor's assent, and is now law. The Council have great pleasure in
stating that from the first inception of the scheme for transferring the Museum to the
Domain up to the present time no opposition of any moment has been raised, while
many expressions of support have been volunteered. It is doubtful whether any
proposal advocating a site for an important public building in Auckland has been so
favourably and so generally accepted. In this connection, the Council wish to state
their high appreciation of the action of the City Coimcil in so generously acceding to the
wishes of the Institute.

As for the character of the site, all that need be said here is that it is in every way
suited for the purpose. It has all the advantages of a commanding ])Osition, greath*
reduced risk of fire, freedom from dust and smoke, and, above all, room for future
expansion. Few of the larger Museums of the world are so happily placed. In grantmg
a portion of Observatory Hill as the site of the future Museum for Auckland the city
has cheerfully and willingly given of its best. Let the Institute look to itself that full
use is made of such great opportunities.

A War Memorial Museum. — Closely allied to the attem])t to erect a Museum worthy
of the city of Auckland on the slopes of the Domain is the formation of a collection
illustrating the share that this country has taken in the Great War. It has long been
the aim and hope of the Institute that an important part of the new building to be
erected shall consist of a War Memorial Museum, capable of adequately commemorating
the trials and hardships, the labom- and sacrifice, of the many thousands of soldiers of
all classes who have left New Zealand to assist in crushing the German peril. Many of
these have given up their life in the struggle, others will return maimed and suffering —
perhaps never to recover health. Is there to be no " Hall of Memory " in Auckland
to keep alive for all time a knowledge of the many brave deeds of these men — to com-
memorate their dauntless courage and steadfast devotion to duty ? The very idea is
almost unthinkable — but time is fleeting, and opportunities are being lost, f^ *'■ '.'^

'*'°^Ie(7i7//T/'7r^^^^''/ar"797.9^ Mavor Tf

Auckland. Vice-Presidents— Yion. E. Mitchelson : Mr. P. J. Parr, C.M.G.,
M.P. Co?/7?c?7-— Professor V. W. Eserton, ^Mr. J. Kenderdine. Mr. T. W.
Leys, Mr. E. V. Miller. Mr. T. Peacock, Mr. D. Petrie. Professor H. W.
Segar, Professor A. P. W. Thomas, :\Ir. J. H. Uj.ton. Mr. H. E. Vaile.
Professor F. P. Worlev. Trvsfees — Mr. T. Peacock, Mr. J. Keid, Professor
A. P. W. Thomas, Mr. J. H. r])ton. Mr. H. E. Vaile Secyetari/ avd
Curator Mr. T. F. Cheeseman. Auditor- Mr. S. Gray.

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 503-

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.

During the vear 1918 nine meetings were held (including the annual
meeting, 18th December), and the following addresses and papers were,
read : — (1st May) " The Decorated Cave Shelters of Canterbury," presi-
dential address by Mr. W. H. Skinner : (5th June) " Testing High-tension
Ins\dators," by Mr. L. Birks : (7th August) " Some Remarks on Soil
Organisms," by Mr. L. J. Wild ; Discussion of Daylight-saving Proposals :
(21st August) " Yeast, and its Influence in the Manufacture of Bread,"
by Mr. S. R. Cowley : (4th September) " A Preliminary Investigation of
the Age and Manner of Growth of Brown Trout in Canterbury, as shown
by Examination of their Scales," by Mr. M. H. Godby : (18th September)
" Description of a New Species of the Family Cerithiidae," by the late Mr.
H. Suter, comnnmicated by Mr. R. Speight ; " Further Notes on the Castle
Hill or Trelissick Basin," by Mr. R. Speight; "The Teachin of the
Classical Languages," by Mr. H. D. Broadhead : (2nd October) " The
Tuatara and its Kindred," by Professor W. B. Benham : (6th November)
" The New Zealand Amphipoda belonging to the Genera H//ale and Allor-
chestis,'' by Dr. Charles Chilton ; " The Sand-hoppers of New Zealand
belonging to the "Genus Orchestia,'' by Dr. Charles Chilton ; " The Passing
of the Forest, with some Notes on Afforestation," by Mr. W. H. Skinner :
(18th December) " The Late Tertiary Gravels of Canterbury," by Mr. R.
Speight ; " Notes from the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station
— No. 7, Catalogue of the Pteridophytes and Spermaphytes of the Upper
Waimakariri River Basin," by Dr. L. Cockayne and Miss E. M. Herriott :
" Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lycopodium — Part 3.
the Plasticity of the Species," by the Rev. Dr. Holloway ; " Ceina, an
Aberrant Genus of the Amphipod Family Talitridae," by Dr. C'harles Chilton.

At the annual meeting the election of officers and Council for 191^i
resulted as follows : President — Dr. C. Coleridge Farr. Vice-Presidents-
Mr. W. H. Skinner and Mr. L. P. Symes. Secretary — Mr. W. Martin.
Treas^irer. — Dr. C. Chilton. Librarian — Mr. W. G. Aldridge. Council-
Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, Mr. L. Birks, Mr. L. J. Wild, Mr. A. V. Mountford.
Mr. ]\I. H. Godby, Mr. J. Drummond. Auditor— m. G. E. Way

Abstr.\ct of Annual Report.

M^nibers/iip. — The number of members on the roll is now 177. During the year
nine new members were elected and thirteen membeisliips lapsed.

M€inber'< on Active Service.- — The Council wishes to place on record the names of
the followiiis members on war service : Drs. H. Aeland, F. J. Borrie, and J. Guthrie :
Messrs. G. E. Archey, J. W. Bird. F. M. Corkill, E. Kidson, C. E. Foweraker, A. Faii--
bairn, H. '1' Ferrar, A. Taylor, G. T. Weston, F. S. AVilding, A. M. Wright, and H. Rand^;.

Obilnari/. — AVith great regret the Council has to record the death of Dr. Waltei-
Thomas, a life member since 1892, who held the office of President in 1897 ; of Mr. H.
Suter. a member since 1897, who by his numerous and valuable papers on New Zealand
Mollusca established his position as the leading authority on this group of animals ;
also of tile fillowing members : Messrs. M. Dixon, T. S. Foster, G. C. Robinson, and
M. G. Wallich.

504 • Proceed I ini.'<.

Government Rt'-^carcli (hunts. — Early in tlic year tlu' Government voted the sum of
£500 to the New Zealand Institute for research work. Five applications for allotments
were made through this Institute, and the Council is pleased to report that the follow-
ing grants were made to members : £200 to Dr. W. P. Evans, for investigation of New
Zealand brown coals ; £50 to Dr. Charles Chilton, for investigation of New Zealand
tlax (phormium) ; and £:}0 to Mr. L. J. Wild, for a soil survey of the Canterbury Plains
<l)strict.

Go-ordination of Science and Industry. — The action of the Institute in this direction
during the past year led to the establishment by the Board of Governors of Canterbury
College of a Technological Section in the Public Library. The need of modern technical
literature has been very much felt during the past four years by those engaged in the
many attempts to establish industries of a chemical or more or less scientific nature.

Ricrarlon Bnsh. — The Institute's representative on the Board of Trustees of the
Riccarton Bush reports that tlie bush has been open to the public during the year at
the usual times, and has been visited by large numbers. Owing to grants received from
several local bodies, the funds of the Board have been sufficient to allow of an increase
in the salary of the ranker and to cover other necessary expenditure, but are still too
limited to allow of such further improvements being made as the Trustees would desire.
The bush continues to be of great use to the botanical students in the neighbourhood
of Christchurch and to members ol the Institute.

Library. — The war period, including the current year, has interfered somewhat
seriously with the library routine. Many parts of journals have failed to arrive — forty-
two parts of seventeen vohimes are missing — interfering seriously with the possibility of
keeping the binding of journals up to date. The inability to proceed with the binding,
and the delay in securing publishers accounts, are 7-esponsible for the small sum shown
as expended on the library.

Finance. — The balance-sheet shows that the total receipts, including the balances
on the Ordinary Account, the Tunnel Investigation Account, the Australasian Antarctic
Expedition Account, and the reseai-ch grants were £473 4s. 8d. This sum includes a
deposit received during the year of £100 for the Australasian Antarctic Expedition
Account. Owing to war conditions a considerable number of subscriptions for the year
are still outstantling. The expenditure includes the payment of two levies to the New
Zealand Institute — namely, £21 17s. 6d. in connection with volume 49 of the Trans-
action i, and £23 2s. (Id. for volume 50, both the volumes having been published during the
financial year. The expenditure on the library was £24 10s. lOd., including a sjiecial
contribution of £10 10s. to the Technological library. Owing to shortage of hands in
the office of the London agent, Messrs. William Wesley and Son, no account for scientific
j )urnals or periodicals supplied was received during the year. The balance for the
Tunnel Investigation Account still stands at £147 7s. 3d., and that of the unexjX'uded
research grants at £'>0. The balance of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition's Account
is £9 14s. 7d., and the balance of the Ordinary Account £18 17s. lOd. The Life
Members" Subscription Account shows a balance of £152 17s. 3d., deposited with the
Permanent Investment and Loan Association of Canterbury.

Olago Institute. ^;>^p 'a*7"'s^ 505

OTAGO INSTITUTK.

— f V>

Eight ordinary meetings iiad been arranged fur, but one of these lapsed
owing to the date being the 12th November, the day on which news of the
Armistice reached New Zealand.

At these meetings the following papers, embodying the results of research
work, were read or received : '' On Two Anomalies of the Vascular System
of Hyla aurea/' by Professor W. B. Benhani, F.R.S. ; " Notes on the Birds
of South-west Otago," by A. Philpott ; " Descriptions of New Species of
Lepidoptera," by A. Philpott ; " Some Remarks on Maori Fish-hooks/" by
H. I). Skinner, B.A. ; "' EarthworuLS from Stephen Island,"" by Professor
W. B. Benham, F.R.S. ; " Notes on the Autecology of certain Plants of
the Peridotite Belt, Nelson, Part 1 — Structure of some of the Plants (No. 2),""
by Miss ^l. W. Betts, M.Sc. ; " On the Occurrence of Three Bands of Marl)h'
in South Peak, near Hampden, Otago," by J. Paik. F.G.S.

The following addresses were also delivered during the session : '' Flying ""
(presidential address), by Professor R. Jack ; " l^nderground Warfare,"" by
Professor D. B. Waters ; " Radio-activity," by Professor Jack, Professor
Inglis, and !3r. (lameron ; '' New Caledonia and the Isle of Pines," by Pro-
fessor J. Park ; " Corals and Coral Reefs," by Professor W. N. Benson ;
besides various short addresses and exhibits bv Profi^ssor Benham, Mr.
W. G. Howes, Dr. Fulton, and Mr. H. D. Skinner.

At the annual meeting (lOth December) the annual report, including the
balance-sheet, was adopted, and the following were elected office-bearers for
1919 : President — Hon. G. M. Thomson, M.L.C. Vice-Presidents — Professor
R. Jack and Dr. R. V. Fulton. Hon. Secretart/ — Professor J. Malcolm.
Hon. Treasurer—Mv. H. Brasch. Hon. Auditor- Mr. J. W. Milnes. Hon.
Librarian — Professor Benham. Council — Professor Benham, Professor Pai'k,
Professor Benson, Messrs. W. G. Howes, H. Mandeno, J. A. Gray, and
F. J. Jones.

Abstract of Annu.\l Report.

Besides the routine work of arrautiing for the meetings, passing accovuits foi- pay-
ment, and sanctioning expenditnie on the library and meeting-room, only two matters
of general interest occuj^ied the attention of the Council timing 1918.

A further stage in the proposals for reform of the New Zealand Institute was
reached when the draft regulations for the holding and appointment of Fellows of the
New Zealand Institute were considered and sent to tlic Institute with suggestions
regarding certain of the clauses.

A circular letter was sent to the afhliated societies asking tlieir co-operation in
securing, through the New Zealand Institute and the Government, more efficient pi'o
tection for native wild birds and seals in New Zealand.

The Council also decided to offer to the University Coumil to pay half the cost of
installation of electric light in th( liiology class-roo7n, with a view to installation of a
projection lantern.

During the year seven new members have been elected ; live have resigned, .so
that the roll now stands at 16(j. Sixteen of these are, or have been, members of the
New Zealand Expeditionary Force.

The Institute regrets having kjst the services of Mr. B. J. Parr, M.A., B.Sc, as
Hon. Secretarj', a position he filled with great success for over sc^ven years.

506 Proceedings.

TECHNOLOGICAL BRANCH.

Early in the year it was decided by the Committee that owing to war conditions
no full course of meetings should be attempted.

The annual and only meeting was held on the loth October, when addresses were
delivered as follows : "A New Device for Damming Swift Riv^ers,"" \>y Professor Park ;
" Military Mine Engineering," by Professor Waters.

At the same meeting the following office-bearers were elected for 1919 : Chairman
— Professor Waters. Vice-C hair men — Professor Park, Messrs. B. B. Hooper and F. W.
Payne. Committee — Messrs. M. C. Hendeison, F. J. Jones, H. Mandeno, George Simp-
son, and R. N. Vanes ; Hon. Secretary — Mr. H. Brasch.

ASTRONOMICAL BRANCH.

The annual meeting (the only meeting of the session) was held on the 29th October,
when a paper on " Stone henge as an Astronomical Station " was contributed by Pro-
fessor D. A. White. Owing to the progress made in the removal of Tanna Hill, the
telescope-house has been dismantled and I\Ir. Skey's telescope returned to him. The
thanks of the meeting were directed to be conveyed to Mr. Skey for his kindness in
placing his telescope at the service of members for so many years. Master A. G. Crust
was complimented on his early discovery of Nova Aquila.

Officers elected for year 1919: Chairman — Mr. R. Gilkison. Vice-Chairmen—
R. Jack, J. Park, and D. R. White. Committee— Rev. D. Dutton, F.R.A.S. ; Dr. Cameron ;
Messrs. H. Brasch, C. Frye, W. S. Wilson, and J. W. Milnes (Hon. Secretary).

HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.

The following papers and addresses were read during the year 1918 :
(17th May) President's inaugural address, " Scientific Development, Past,
Present, and Future " ; (19th June) '' A Visit to a Montessori Infant
School," by the Hon. Sir R. Stout, K.C.M.G. ; (16th July) "^ The Marvels of
the S])ecti'oscope," by J. W. Poynton ; (15th August) '" Some Remarks and
Experiments on Combustion." by J. H. Edmundson ; (13th Sejitember)
Lantern address on '' Rhodesia, Mashonaland, &c.," by Thomas Probert.

At the annual meeting tlie following officers for the year 1919 were
elected : President— W. A. Armour, M^A., M.Sc. V ice-P resident— E. G.
Loten. Council — W. Dinwiddie ; A. Anderson ; H. Hill ; D. A. Strachan,
M.A. ; G. Stubbs ; T. C. Moore, M.D. Hon. Secretanj and Treasurer—
C. F H. Pollock. Hon. Auditor— ^i. S. Large. Hon. Lanternist—Yi. Cottrell.
Representative to New Zealatid Institute — H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S.

Abstract of Annual Report.

Meetings. — Five general meetings were held, at which three papers were read. Two
further meetings were arranged for in November and December, at which addresses
were to be given by Mr. D. A. Strachan, M.A., on " Some Recent Developments in
Economics," and Mr. J. W. Poynton, S.M., on '" Radium and its Wonders." In view
of the disastrous influenza epidemic, however, these had to be abandoned.

Membership. -Ten new members have been elected during the year, and eight have
resigned. The total membership is now eighty.

Members on Active Service. — The Council desires to place on record the names of
the following members on war service : Surgeon-Colonel H. F. Bernau, Surgeon-Colonel
J. P. D. Leahy, and Messrs. E. F. Northcroft, E. G. Wheeler, and P. Loftus Poole.

Obituary. — With great regret the Council records the death of the following members
during the year : Mr. H. W. Antill, a past Vice-President : Dr. E. H. W. Henley, a
former President ; Mr. T. Tanner, a jiast President, and one of the original founders ;
and Mr. Peter Dinwiddie, a member for thirty-four years.

Hawke's Bay Educational Conference. — The President and Hon. Secretary were
appointed delegates to represent the Institute at this conference, held at the Athenaeum
on the 7th and 8th October.

Finance. — The balance-sheet shows the satisfactory credit balance of £50 1 6s. 3d.

Manawatu Philosophical Society. 507

MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Seven general meeting were lield during the year, at which the following
papers were read : " The Ethics of the British Constitution," by Lance-
Corpoml C. E. Ferris. N.Z.M.C. ; " The Origin of Ocean Currents," by A. W.
Burrell : "" Mangahao versus Waikaremoana as Sources of Electric Power,"
by C. N. Clausen ; " The Panama Canal," by Captain Spence, N.Z.M.C. ;
'•"The Hot Springs of Querta del Inca," by W. K Mummery, F.I.C. ;
" Mountains," by'^Dr. C. A. Cotton, D.Sc.

Abstract of Annual Report.

As the result of an aijpiication by the society for an annual subsidy the Borough
Council has granted a subsidy of £10.

At the annual meeting of the 13th December, 1917, it was resolved that the number
of members of Council be increased from six to twelve. This resolution was confirmed
at a general meeting held on the 8th March.

Uurmg the year five new members were elected, and two, Drs. Stowe and Barnett,
who had been on active service, returned.

With very deep regret the Council has to record the loss which the society, in
common with the town and district, has suffered bj^ the death of Mr. J. E. Vernon,
M.A., B.Sc, Rector of the High School, who was a member of the society from its
foundation, constantly occupied a seat on the Council, and served the office of
President. Another member has been removed by death in the person of Mr. David
Buick, M.P., who was at all times ready to use the influence of his position to further
the interests of the society.

The Council is also about to lose, though happily in this case only by his official
removal from Palmerston, another most valued member in Mr. J. W. Poynton, S.M.,
who, ever since his coming to Palmerston, has been a most active member of Council,
has for three successive years been President, and has contributed many valuable
papers.

The attendance at the Museum has kept up to the average of from twenty-five to
thirty each afternoon, but the majority of these are quite young, and it is still a matter
of regret that their visits are not made more systematically and under due supervision.
A good many additions have been made to the Museum, including a collection of about
fifty moths and butterflies from Dr. Thomson, curios from the Solomon Islands presented
by Archdeacon Comins, and a number of pamphlets and leaflets relating to the war
from the British Museum.

There is little doubt that the ab.sorbing interest of the war has had a bad efiect
both on the number of our subscribers and the attendance at our meetings, and now
that there is a prospect of a speedy return to normal conditions we may hope for an
improvement .in both.

The officers for the year 1919 were elected as follows : President —
Mr. M. A. Eliott. Vice- Presidents — Messrs. J. A. Colquhoun, M.Sc. ;
C. N. Clausen. Officer in Charge of (he Observatorij — Mr. R. A. H. Grace.
Council — Miss Ironside, M.A. ; Messrs. J. L Barnicoat ; R. Edwards ;
J. B. Gerrand ; E. Larcomb ; W. R. Mummery, F.I.C. ; W. Park ; C. T.
Salmon, Associate in Eng. ; H. Seifert ; D. Sinclair, C.E. ; A. Whitaker.
Secretary and Treasurer — K. Wilson, M.A. Avditor — W. E. Bendall,
F.I.A.N.Z.

508 Proceedings.

WANGANUI PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

During the session of 1918 three meetings were held, at which the follow-
ing papers were read : '" The New Star," by W. J. T. Ward ; " New
♦Stars,"' by Mr. A. C. Clifford; "New Stars "reviewed," bv Mr. Thomas
Allison; "The Geology of Wanganui," by Dr. P. Marshall," F.G.S. ; "To
what Extent is Earth-rotation the Cause of the Ocean Currents?" bv Mr.
A. W. Burrell, of Stratford (communicated by Mr. J. T. Ward). " The
following i)apers were taken as read : " Occurrence of Jloa-bones in the
Lower Part of the Wanganui Beds," by Dr. P. Marshall ; " Fossils and
Age of the Ham])den Beds." by Dr. P. Marshall ; and " Some New
Species of Fossil MoUusca," by Dr." P. Marshall and Mr. R. Murdoch.

The annual meeting was held on the lOth December, 1918, when the
re])ort and balance-sheet were adopted. The roll shows a falling-of? in the
membership, and now stands at thirty-three ordinary and two life members.

The following officers were elected for the year 1919: President — Dr. P.
Marshall. Vice-Presldeiils Messrs. J. T. Ward and J. A. Neame, B.A.
CouHcil-^Messv^. T. Allison ; C. Palmer Brown. M.A., LL.B. ; R. Murdoch ;
T. W. Downes ; H. K. Sturge, M.A. : Dr. H. R. Hatherly ; and {ex officio)
H. Drew, Hon. Curator. Museum. Hot/. Secretary — Mr. C. Reginald Ford,
F.R.G.S.

NELSON INSTITUTE.

During the two years following the lueermg on the 22nd December,
1916, no meetings whatever of the scientific and literary branch have been
held, a circumstance due to a number of causes, the chief being the pressure
of business created by the European war. The signing of the Armistice
last November, however, and the pros])ect of a speedy peace, give rise to
the hope that during the ensuing session the activity of the bjanch may
be revived and a suitable programme be carried out.

As is only natural during such a jieriod as we have just passed through,
the membersliip has dwindled, but it is hoped that in this respect also the
conclusion of peace will have a beneficial effect.

The Atkinson Observatory has been oj)ened to the ])ublic at intervals,
and has been in the charge of Mr. J. R. Strachan on those occasions.

During tlie |)eriod also several interesting relics of Admiral Lord Nelson
have been presented to the Museum by Mr. W. F. Gordon, of New Plymouth,
and these, together with the letters already in the Museum, have enabled
a case to be set aside as a " Nelson case." An extremely fine model of the
St. George has also been presented to the Museum by the trustees of the
Suter Art Gallery. In addition, we are indebted to Dr. F. A. Bett for two
specimens, one of the saddleback and one of the jackbird, and these have
been placed on exhibition in the Museum.

A P P E N T) I X

511

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908.

FoK the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, and Regulations thereunder
see vol. 49, 1917, pp. 570-74.

THE HUTTON MEMORIAL MEDAL AND RESEARCH FUND.

DeclakatiojSi op Trust.

This deed, made the fifteenth day of February, one thousand nine hundred
and nine (1909), between the New Zealand Institute of the one part, and
the Public Trustee of the other part : Whereas the New Zealand Institute
is possessed of a fund consisting now of tlie sum of five hundred and fifty-
five pounds one shilling (£555 Is.), held for the purposes of the Hutton
Memorial Medal and Research Fund on the terras of the rules and regu-
lations made by the Governors of the said Institute, a copy whereof is
hereto annexed : And whereas the said money has been transferred to the
Public Trustee for the purposes of investment, and the Public Trustee
now holds the same for such purposes, and it is expedient to declare the
trusts upon which the same is held by the Public Trustee :

Now this deed witnesseth that the Public Trustee shall hold the said
moneys and all other nioneys which shall be handed to him by the said
Governoi's for the same purposes upon trust from time to time to invest
the same upon such securities as are lawful for the Public Trustee to
invest on, and to hold the principal and income thereof for the purposes
set out in the said rules hereto attached.

And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public Trustee
to pay all or any of the said moneys, both principal and interest, to the
Treasurer of the said New Zealand Institute upon being directed so to do
by a resolution of the Governors of the said Institute, and a letter signed
by the Secretary of the said Institute enclosing a copy of such resolution
certified by him and by the President as correct shall be sufficient
evidence to the Public Trustee of the due passing of such resolution :
And upon receipt of such letter and copy the receipt of the Treasurer for
the time being of the said Institute shall be a sufficient discharge to the
Public Trustee : And in no case shall the Public Trustee be concerned to
inquire into the administration of the said moneys by the Governors of
the said Institute.

As witness the seals of tlTe said parties hereto, the day and year
hereinbefore written.

Resolutions of Board of Governors.

Resolved by the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute
that —

1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the committee of
subscribers to the Hutton Memorial Fund be called "The Hutton
Memorial Research Fund," in memory of the late Captain Frederick

512 Appendix.

Wollaston Hutton, F.R.S. Such fund shall consist of the moneys sub-
scribed and granted for the purpose of the Hutton Memorial, and all
other funds which may be given or granted for the same purpose.

2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of
Governors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys,
and may mvest the same upon any securities proper for trust-moneys.

3. A sum not exceeding £100 shall be expended in procuring a bronze
medal to be known as " The Hutton Memorial Medal."

4. The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid,
shall be invested in such securities as aforesaid as may be approved of by
the Board of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment
shall be used for the furtlierance of the objects of the fund.

5. The Hutton Memorial Medal shall be awarded from time to lime
by the Board of Governors, in accordance with these regulations, to
persons who have made some noticeable contribution in connection with
the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand.

6. The Board shall make regulations setting out the manner in which
the funds shall be administered. Such regulations shall conform to the
terms of the trust.

7. The Board of Governors may, in the manner prescribed in the
regulations, make grants from time to time from the accrued interest to
persons or committees who require assistance in prosecuting researches
in the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand.

8. There shall be published annually in the " Transactions of the
New Zealand Institute" the regulations adopted by the Board as afore-
said, a list of the recipients of the Hutton Memorial Medal, a list of the
persons to whom grants have been made during the previous year, and
also, where possible, an abstract of researches made by them.

Regulations under which the Hutton Memokial Medal shall be

AWARDED and THE RESEARCH PuND ADMINISTERED.

1. Unless in exceptional circumstances, the Hutton Memorial Medal
shall be awarded not oftener than once in every three years ; and in no
case shall any medal be awarded unless, in the opinion of the Board,
some contribution really deserving of the honour has been made.

2. The medal shall not be awarded for any research published previous
to the 31st December, 1906.

3. The research for which the medal is awarded must have a distinct
bearing on New Zealand zoology, botany, or geology.

4. The medal shall be awarded only to those who have received the
greater part of their education in New Zealand or who have resided in
New Zealand for not less than ten years.

5. Whenever possible, the medal slmll be presented in some public
manner.

6. The Board of Governors may, at an annual meeting, make grants
from the accrued interest of the fund to any person, society, or commit-
tee for the encouragement of research in New Zealand zoology, botany,
or geology.

7. Applications for such grants shall be made to the Board before the
80th September.

8. In making such grants the Board of Governors shall give preference
to such persons as are defined in regulation 4.

Hull on Memorial Fund. 513

9. The recipients of such grants shall report to the Board before the
31st December in the year following, showing in a general way how the
grant has been expended and what progress has been made with the
research.

10. The results of reseatclies aided by grants from the fund shall,
where possible, be published in New Zealand.

11. The Board of Governors may from time to time amend or alter
the regulations, such amendments or alterations being in all cases in con-
formity with resolutions 1 to 4.

AWAED OP THE HuTTON MEMORIAL MeDAL.

1911. Professor W. B. Beuham, D.Sc. F.R.S., University of Otago—
For researches in New Zealand zoology.

1914. Dr. L. Cockayne, F.L S., F.R.S. — For researches on the
ecology of Nevi^ Zealand plants.

1917. Professor P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc— For researches m New
Zealand geology.

Gkant from the Hutton Memori.^l Research Fund

1919. Miss M. K. Mestayer— £10, for work on the New Zealand
Mollusca.

HECTOR MEMORIAL RESEARCH FUND.

Declaration of Trust.

This deed, made the thirty-first day of July, one thousand nine hundred
and fourteen, between the New Zealand Institute, a body corporatf
duly incoiporated by the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, of the one
part, and the Public Trustee of the other part : Whereas by a declara-
tion of trust dated the twenty-seventh day of January, one thousand
nine hundred and twelve, after reciting that the New Zealand Institute
was possessed of a fund consisting of the sum of £1,045 10s. 2d., held
for the purposes of the Hector Memorial Research Fund on the teims of
the rules and regulations therein mentioned, which said moneys had been
handed to the Public Trustee for investment, it was declared (inter aha)
that the Public Trustee should hold the said moneys and all other moneys
which should be handed to him by the said Governors of the Institute
for the same purpose upon trust from time to time, to invest the same
in the common fund of the Public Trust Office, and to hold the principal
and income thereof for the purposes set out in the said rules and regula-
tions in the said deed set forth : And whereas the said rules and regu-
lations have been amended by the Goveinors of the New Zealand Institute,
and as amended are hereinafter set forth : And whereas it is expedient
to declare that the said moneys are held by the Public Trustee upon the
trusts declared by the said deed of trust and for the purposes set forth
in the said rules and regulations as amended as aforesaid :

Now this deed witnesseth and it is hereby declared that the Public
Trustee shall hold the said moneys and all other moneys which shall he

17— Trans.

514 Appendix.

handed to him by the said Governors for the same purpose upon trust
from time to time to invest the same in the common fund of the Public
Trust Office, and to hold the principal and income thereof for the pur-
poses set out in the said rules and regulations hereinafter set forth :

And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public
Trustee to pay, and he shall pay, all or any of the said moneys, both
principal and interest, to the Treasurer of the said New Zealand Insti-
txite upon being directed to do so by a resolution of the Governors of
the said Institute, and a letter signed by the Secretary of the said Insti-
tute enclosing a copy of such resolution certified by him and by the
President as correct shall be sufficient evidence to the Public Trustee
of the due passing of such resolution : And upon i-eceipt of such letter
and copy the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said
Institute shall be a sufficient discharge to the Public Trustee : And in
no case shall the Public Trustee be concerned to inquire into the adminis-
tration of the said moneys by the Governors of the said Institute.

As witness the seals of the said parties hereto, the day and year first
hereinbefore written.

Uriles and Regtdations made hy the Governors of the New Zealand
Institute in relation to the Hector Memorial Research Fund.

1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the Wellington
Hector Memorial Committee be called " The Hector Memorial Research
Fund," in memory of the late Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
The object of such fund shall be the encouragement of scientific research
in New Zealand, and such fund shall consist of the moneys subscribed
and granted for the purpose of the memorial and all other funds which
may be given or granted for the same purpose.

2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of Go-
vernors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys, and
may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-moneys.

3. A sum not exceeding one hundred pounds (£100) shall be expended
in procuring a bronze medal, to be known as the Hector Memorial Medal.

4. The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid,
shall be invested in such securities as may be approved by the Board
of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment shall be
used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund by providing thereout
a prize for the encouragement of such scientific research in New Zealand
of such amount as the Board of Governors shall fiom time to time
determine.

5. The Hector Memorial Medal and Prize shall be awarded annually
by the Board of Governors.

6. Tlie prize and medal shall be awarded by rotation for the follow-
ing subjects, namely — (1) Botany, (2) chemistry, (3) ethnology, (4) geo-
logy, (5) physics (including mathematics and astronomy), (6) zoology
(including animal physiology).

In each year the medal and pi-ize shall be awarded to that investi-
gator who, working within the Dominion of New Zealand, shall in the
opinion of the Board of Governors have done most towards the advance-
ment of that branch of science to which the medal and prize are in such
year allotted.

7. Whenever possible the medal shall be presented in some public
manner.

Hector Memorial Research Fund. 515

Award of the Hector Memorial Research Fund.

1912. L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.S.— For researches in New

Zealand botany.

1913. T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D. — For researches m chemistry.

1914. Blsdon Best — For researches in New Zealand ethnology.

1915. P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.— For researches in New

Zealand geology.

1916. Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. — For researches in physics.

1917. Charles Chilton, M. A. ,D.Sc.,F.L.S.,C.M.Z.S.—Forresearches

in zoology.

1918. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S.— For researches in New

Zealand systematic botany.

1919. P. W. Robertson — For researches in chemistry.

REGULATIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE GOVERNMENT

RESEARCH GRANT.

All grants shall be subject to the following conditions, and each grantee
shall be duly informed of these conditions : —

1. All instruments, specimens, objects, or materials of permanent value,
whether purchased or obtained out of or by means of the grant, or supplied
from among those at the disposal of the Institute, are to be regarded, unless
the Research Giaut.s Committee decide otherwise, as the property of the
Institute, and are to be returned by the grantee, for disposal according to
the orders of the committee, at the conclusion of his research, or at such
other time as the committee may determine.

2. Every one receiving a grant shall furnish to the Research Grants
Committee, on or before the 1st January following upon the allotment of
the grant, a report (or, if the object of the grant be not attained, an in-
terim report, 1 o be renewed at the same date in each subsequent year until
a final report can be furnished or the committee dispense with further
reports) containing (a) a brief statement showing the results arrived at
or the stage which the inquiry has reached ; (6) a general statement of the
expenditure incurred, accompanied. ;is far as is possible, with vouchers ;
(c) a list of the instruments, specimens, objects, or materials purchased or
obtained out of the grant, or supplied by the committee, which are at
present in his possession ; and {d) references to any transactions, journals,
or other publications in which results of the research have been printed.
In the event of the grantee failing to send in within three months of
the said 1st January a report satisfactory to the committee he may be
required, on resolution of the Board of Governors, to return the whole of
the sum allotted to him.

3. Where a grant is made to two or more persons acting as a committee
for the purpose of carrying out some research, one member of the said
committee shall assume the responsibility of furnishing the report and
receiving and disbursing the money.

4. Papers in which results are pubhshed that have been obtained
through aid furnished by the Government grant should contain an acknow-
ledgment of that fact.

17*

ol6 Appendix.

5. Every grantee shall, before any of the grant is paid to him, be
required to sign an engagement that he is prepared to carry out the general
conditions applicable to all grants, as well as any conditions which may
be attached to his |»articular yrant.

6. In cases where specimens or preparations of permanent value are
obtained through a grant the committee shall, as far as possible, direct that
such specimens shall be deposited in a museum or University college within
the province where the specimens or material were obtained, or in which
the grantee has worked. The acknowledgment of the receipt of the speci-
mens by such institution shall fully satisfy the claims of the Institute.

7. In cases where, after completion of a research, the committee directs
that any instrument or apparatus obtained by means of the grant shall be
deposited in an institution of higher learning, such deposit shall be subject
to an annual report from the institution in question as to the condition of
the instrument or apparatus, and as to the use that has been made of it.

Research Grants from Vote (£2,000) to 31st March, 1919.

Through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury : — ■

Mr. L J. Wild, £30 for investigations for a soil survey; granted
31st December, 1918.

Through the Otago Institute : —

Professor Jack, £25 for investigating the electric charge on rain ; granted
in 1917; paid 29th January, 1919.

Through the Wellington Philosophical Society: —

Dr. C. E. Adams, £55 for o]>tical apparatus ; granted March, 1919.

Through the New Zealand Institute : —

New Zealand Institute Library, £250 for binding volumes of technological
library; granted March, 1919.

THE CARTER BEQUEST.

For extracts from the will of Charles Rooking Carter see vol. 48, 1916
pp. 56-5-66.

517

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND
INTITULED THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867; RECONSTITUTED BY
AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND UNDER THE NEW
ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 190:!. AND CONTINUED BY THE NEW ZEALAND
INSTITUTE ACT, 1908.

BOARD OF GOVERNORS.
EX OFFICIO.

His Excellency the Governor-General.
The Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs.

NOMINATED BY THE GOVERNMENT.

Mr. Charles A. Ewen (reappointed December, 1918) ; Dr. J. Allan Thom-
son, F.G.S. (reappointed December, 1917) ; Mr. B. C. Aston, F.I.G.,
F.C.S. (reappointed December, 1917) ; Dr. Charles Chilton, F.L.S.,
C.M.Z.S. (reappointed December, 1918).

ELECTED BY AFFILIATED SOCIETIES (DECEMBER, 1918).

„, ,,. r>, ., 1 ■ , r, • I Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A.

Wellington Philosophical Society ... , p.^fessor T. H. Easterfield.

(Professor H. W. Segar, M.x\.

-{Professor A. P. W. Thomas,

( M.A.

(Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A.

IMr. L, Birks, B.Sc.

(Hon. G. M. Thomson, F.C.S. ,

\ F.L.S., M.L.C.

(Mr. E. J. Parr, M. A., B.Sc.

Mr. H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S.

Dr. L. Cockayne, F.L. S., F.R.S.

Mr. M. A. Eliott.

Dr. P. Marshall. F.G.S.

Auckland Institute ...

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury

Otago Institute

Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute ..
Nelson Institute

Manawatu Philosophical Society
Wanganui Philosophical Society

OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1919.

' President : Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S.

Hon. Treasurer: Mr C. A. Ewen.

Hon. Editor : Dr. C. A. Cotton, F.G.S.

Hon. Librarian : Dr. J. Allan Thomson, F.G.S.

Hon. Secret.\ry: Mr. B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S

(Box 40, Post-office, Wellinf^ton).
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES.

Name of Society.

Secretary's Name and Address.

Date of Affiliation.

Wellington Philosophical

Society
Auckland Institute

Philosophical Institute of

Canterbury
Otago Institute

Hawke's Bay Philosophical

Institute
Nelson Institute . .

Manawatu Philosophical

Society
Wanganui Philosophical

Society
Poverty Bay Institute . .

C. G. G. Berry, Railway Build-
ings, Wellington

T. F. Chee.seman, Museum, Auck-
land

William Martin, 51 Matai Street,
Riccarton, Christchurch

Professor John Malcolm, Univer-
sitv, Dunedin

C. F. H. Pollock, P.O. Box 166,
Napier

E. L Morley, Waimea Streei^,
Nelson

K. Wilson, 92 Rangiiikei Street,
Palmersion Nortli

C. R. Ford, College Street, Wa-
nganui

John Mouat, Adams Chambers,
Gladstone Road, Gisborne

10th June, 1868.
10th June, 1868.
22ud October, 1868.
18th October, 1869.
31st March, 1875.
20th December, 1883,
6th January, 1905.
2nd December, 1911.
1st February, 1919.

518

Appendtx.
FORMER HONORARY MEMBERS.

1870.

Agassiz, Professor Louis.
Drury, Captain Byron, R.N.
Finsch, Professor Otto, Pii.D.
Flower, Professor W. H., F.R.S.
Hochstetter, Dr. Ferdinand von.

Darwin, Charles, M.A., F.R.S.
Gray, J. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.

Grey, Sir George, K.C.B.

Huxley, Thomas H., LL.D., F.R.S.

Hooker, Sir J. D., G.C.S.I., C.B., M.D.,

F.R.S., O.M.
Mueller, Ferdinand von, M.D., F.R.S.,

C.M.G.
Owen, Professor Richard, F.R.S.
Richards, Rear-Admiral G. H.

1871.

Lindsay, W. Lauder, M.D., F.R.S.E.

1872.

I stokes. Vice- Admiral J. L.

1873.

Bowen, Sir George Ferguson, G. C.M.G.
Giinther, A., M.D., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Pickard-Cambridge, Rev. O., M.A., F.R.S.
C.M.Z.S.

McLachlan, Robert. F.L.S.
Newton, Alfred, F.R.S.

1874.

Thomson, Professor Wyville, F.R.S.

Filhol, Dr. H.

RoUeston, Professor G., M.D., F.R.S.

1875.

Sclater, P. L., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.

Berggren, Dr. S.

Clarke, Rev. W. B., M.A., F.R.S.

Baird, Professor Spencer F.

Garrod, Professor A. H., F.R.S.
Miiller, Professor Max, F.R.S.

1876.

Etheridge, Professor R., F.R.S.

1877.

I Weld, Frederick A., C.M.G.

1878.

Tenison- Woods, Rev. J. E., F.L.S.

1880.
The Most Noble the Marquis of Normanby, G. C.M.G.

188.3.

Carpenter, Dr. W. B., C.B., F.R.S.
Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.S.

Thomson, Sir William, F.R.S.

Gray, Professor Asa.

Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A., F.R.S.

Beneden, Professor J. P. van.
Ettingshausen, Baron von.

1885.

Wallace, A. R., F.R.S., O.M.

1888.

McCoy, Professor F., D.Sc, C.M.G.,
F.R.S.

Former Honorary Members. 519

1890.
Riley, Professor C. V.

1891.
Davis, J. W., F.G.S., F.L.S.

1895.
Mitten, William, P.R.S.

1896.

Langley, S. P. | Lydekker, Richard, P.R.S.

1900.

Agardh, Dr. J. G. Massee, George, F.L.S. , F.R.M.S.

Avebury, Lord, P.O., F.R.S.

1901.
Eve, H. W., M.A. | Howes, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S.

1906.
Milne, J., P.R.S.

1909.
Darwin, Sir George, F.R.S.

1914.

Arber, E. A. Newell, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.L.S.

FORMER MANAGER AND EDITOR.

[Under the New Zealand Institute Act, 1867.

1867-1903.

Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G., P.R.S.

PAST PRESIDENTS.
1903-1.

Huttou, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.R.S.

1905-6.
Hector, Sir .James, M.D., K.G.M.G., F.R.S.

1907-8.
Thomson, George Malcolm, F.L.S., P.C.S.

1909-10.
• Hamilton, A.

1911-12.
Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

1913-14.

Chilton, C, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., P.L.S., G.M.Z.S.

1915.

Petrie, D., M.A., Ph.D.

1916-17.
Benham, W. B., M.A., D.Sc, F.Z.S., P.R.S.

520

Appendix.

HONORARY M?]MBERS.

1877.

Sharp, Dr. D., University Museum, Cambridge.

1890.

LivERsiDGE, Professor A., M.A., F.R.S.,
Fieldhead, Coombe Warren, Kingston
Hill, England.

NoRDSTEDT, Profe.ssor Otto, Ph.D., Uni-
versity of Lund, Sweden.

1891.

GooDALE, Professor G. L., M.D., LL.D., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

1894.

CoDRiNGTON, Rev. R. H., D.D., Wadhurst
Rectory, Sussex, England.

Thiselton - Dyek, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G.,
CLE., LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., Witcombe,
Gloucester, England.

1901.
Goebel, Professor Dr. Carl von, University of ]\Iunich.

1902.
Sars, Professor G. O., University of Cliristiania, Norway.

1903.

Klotz, Professor Otto J., 437 Albert Street, Ottawa. Canada.

1904.

Rutherford, Professor Sir E., D.Sc ,
F.R.S., Nobel Laureate, Cambridge,
England.

David, Professor T. Edgeworth, F.R.S.,
C.M.G., Sydney University, N.S.W.

1906.

Beddard, F.E., D.Sc, P.R.S., Zoological
Society, London.

Brady, G. S., D.Sc, F.R.S., University of
Durham, England.

1907.

Dendy, Dr. A., F.R.S., King's College, | Meyrick, E., B.A., F.R.S., Marlborough

University of London, England.

College, England.

DiELS, Professor L., Ph.D., University of Stebbing, Rev. T. R. R., F.R.S., Tun-

Marburg.

bridge Welle, England.

1910.
Bruce, Ur. W. S., Edinburgh.

1913.
Davis, Professor W. Morris, Harvard I Hemsli!:y, Dr. W. Hotting, F.R.S., Kew

University, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Lodge. St. Peter's Road, Broadstair^,
Kent, England.

1914.

Balfour, Professor I. Baylev, F.R.S.,
Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.

Haswell, Professor W. A., F.R.S, Uni-
versity, Sydney.

1915.
Bateson, Professor VV., F.R.S , Merton, Surrey, England.

1916
Massart, Professor Jean, University of Bru-sels, Belgium.

l^oU of Members.

521

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

WELLimiTOX PHILOSOPJilCAL SOCIETY.

[* Life inombtTs. t On active service.]

Ackland. E. W., P.O. B..x 928, Wellington.

Adams, C. E., D.Sc, A.I.A. (London),
F.R.A.S., Hector Observatory, Wellington.

Adkin, G. L., Queen Street, Levin.

Andersen, .Johannes 0.. Turnbull Library.
Wellington.

Anderson, W. J., M.A.. LL.D.. Education
Department, Wellington.

Andrew, R. L., Dominion Laboratory. Wel-
lington.

Anson, Miss .1. ('.. Lower Hutt.

Aston, B. C. F.LC, F.C.S., P.O. Box W,
Wellington.

Atkinson. E. H., Agricultural Department,
Wellington.!

Bagley, G., care of Young's Chemical Com-
pany. 14 Egmont Street, WelUngton.

Baillie, H.. Public Library, WelUngton.

Bakewell, F. H., M.A., Education Board,
Mercer Street, Wellington.

Baldwin, E. S., 215 Lambton Quay. Wel-
lington.

Bell. E. D., Panama Street, Wellington.

BeU. Hon. Sir Francis H. D.. K.C.. M.L.C..

fes Panama Street, Wellington.

Berry, C. G. G., 35 Bolton Street. Wellington.

Best, Elsdon, Dominion Museum, Wellington.

Blair, David K., MJ.Mech.E., 9 Grey Street,
Wellington.

Brandon, A. de B., B.A., Featherston Street,
Wellington.

Bretherton. A. C. Pubhc Trust Office, Wel-
lington.

Bridges. G. G., 2 Wesley Road, Wellington.

Brodrick, T. N., Under-Secretaiy, Lands and
Survey Department, Wellington.

Brown, JT., Experimental Farm, Weraroa.

Browne. M. H., Education Department, Wel-
lington.

Burbidge, P. W.. ^LSc, Victoria University
College, WeUington.f """^ I ^

Burnett, ,J., M.Inst. C.E., care of M. Burnett,
of Richardson, McCabe, and Co., 1 1 Grey
Street, Wellington.

Burton, Richard P., Lougner Hall, Salop,
Shrewsburj', England.*

Cameron. Dr. R. A.. 148 Willis Street, Wel-
lington.

Campbell, J.. F.R.I. B.A., Government Archi-
tect, Public Works Department, Welling-
ton.

Carter, W. H., care of Dr. Henry, The Terrace,
WelUngton.t

(JharaberUn, T. Chamberlin, Crescent Road,
Khandallah.

Chapman. Martin, K.C., Brandon Street,
Wellington.

Chudleigh, E. R., Orongomairoa. Waihou.

Clark, Professor H., Victoria University Col-
lege, Wellington.

Clarke. J. T., care of Messrs. Searle, Joy, and
Co., (il Victoria Street, WeUington.

Cockayne, L.. Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.S., Ngaio,
Wellington.
I Comrie, L. J., M.A., Wapiti Avenue, Epsom,
I Auckland.

Cotton, C. A., D.Sc. F.G.S., Victoria Univer-
sity College, Wellington.
. Cowan, J., Department of Internal Affairs,
[ Wellington.

Crawford, A. D., Box 1 20, G.P.O.. WeUington.

Cull. J. E. L., B.Sc. in Eng. (Mech.), Pubhc
Works Department. Wellington.

Curtis, H. F., 19 May Street, WeUingtcju.

Darling, J., Kelburn.

Davies, V. C, Devon Street, New Plymouth.f

Donovan, W., M.Sc, Dominion Laboratory,
Wellington.

Dore, A. B.. Bacteriological Laboratory,
Wellington.

Dougall, Archibald, 9 Claremont Grove, Wel-
lington .

Dpnock, E. R.. F.I.A.N.Z.. A.I.A. V., Wood-
ward Street, Wellington.

Earnshaw, W., 4 Watson Street, WeUington.f

Easterfield, Professor T. IT.. M.A.. Ph.D.,
Victoria University College, Wellington.

Edwards, F. E., .307 Willis Street, Welling-
ton.

Ewen, Charles A., Heretaunga, Upper Hutt.

Farquhar, A. S., Scots College. Wellington.

Ferguson, Wilham, M.A.. M. Inst. C. E..
M.LMech.E., 131 Coromandel Street, Wel-
lington.

Field, W. H., M.P.. 160 Featherston Street,
Wellington.

Findlay, Sir John G., K.C., LL.D.. 197
Lambton Quay. WeUington.

FitzGerald. Gerald, A.M.Inst.C.E.. P.O. Box
4(51, WeUington.

Fletcher. Rev. H. J., The .Manse, TauiK).

Fortune, Alfred, Huia Road. Hataitai.

Fox, Thomas O.. Borough Enghieer. ]Miramar,
Wellington.

Freeman, C. .].. 95 Webb Street, Wellington.*

Freyberg. C. .Macdonukl Crescent, Welling-
ton.f

Fulton. J., 14 North Terrace. Kelburn. t

Furkert, F. W., A.M.Inst.C.E., Public Works
Department. Wellington.

522

Appendix.

Garrow, Professor J. M. E., B.A., LL.B.,

Victoria University College, Wellington.*
Gavin, W. H., Public Works Department,

Wellington.
Gibbs, Dr. H. E., 240 WilUs Street, Welling-
ton.
Giflord, A. C, M.A., F.R.A.S., 6 Shannon

Street, Wellington.*
Gilbert, Rev. Father A. T., St. Patrick's

College, Wellington.
Goudie, H. A., Whakarewarewa.
Gray, W., Mauriceville.
Hamilton, H., A.O.S.M., 58 Bowen Street,

Wellington.t
Hanify, H. P., 18 Panama Street, Wellington.
Hansford, George D., Parhamentary Build-
ings, Wellington.
Hastie, Miss J. A., care of Street and Co.,

30 GornhiU, London E.C.*
Hector, C. Monro, M.D., B.Sc, F.R.A.S.,

Lower Hutt.
Heenan, J. W., Department of Internal

Affairs, Wellington.

Helyer, Miss E., 1 3 Tonks Grove, Wellington.

Henderson, J., M.A., D.Sc, B.Sc. in Eng.

(Metall.), Geological Survey Department,

Wellington.

Hetherington, Miss J,, Training College,

Wellington.
Hicks, P. L., Bacteriological Department,

Wellington.
Hislop, J., Internal Affairs Department, Wel-
lington.
Hodson, W. H., 40 Pirie Street, Wellington.
Hogben, E. Noel, 32 Crescent Road, Khand-

ailah.
Hogben, G., C.M.G., M.A., F.G.S., 32 Crescent

Road, KhandaUah.
Hohnes, R. L., F.R.Met.Soc, " Kia Ora,"

Fern Street, Randwick, Sydney.*
Holmes. R. W., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer-in-
Gliief, Public Works Department, Welling-
ton.
Hooper, Captain G. S., Grant Road, North

WeUington.
Hooper, R. H., 6 St. John's Street, Wel-
lington.
Hudson, G. V., F.E.S., Karori.
Jack, J. W.. 170 Fcatherstou Street, Wel-
lington.
James. L. G., P.O. Box 94 (Hunter Street),

Wellington.
Jenkinsou, S. H., Railway Department. Wel-
lington.
Jobson, Miss Nancy, M.A., St. Margaret's

College, Wellington.
Johnston, Hon. G. Randall, care of Martm

Chapman. K.C.. Wellington.*
Jones. E. G., B.A., .33 EUice Avenue. Wel-
lington.t
Joseph, Joseph. P.O. Box -143, Wellington.
Kempthorne, Mrs. H. E., Bellevue Road,

Lower Hutt.
Kennedy. Rev. Dv. D., F.R.A.S., St. Patrick's
College. Wellington.

King, G. W., B.E., care of A. H. King. P.O

Box 116, Christchurch-t
Kirk, Professor H. B., M.A., Victoria Univer-
sity College, Wellington.
Kissell, F. T. M., Public Works Department,

Wellington. '
Knight, C. Prendergast, 126 Bolton Street,

Wellington.
La Trobe, W. S., M.A., Technical College.

Wellington.
Lawrence, C. A., 53 Aurora Terrace, Wel-
lington.
Levi, P., M.A., care of Wilford and Levi. 15

Stout Street, Wellington.
Lomas, E. K., M.A., M.Sc, F.R.G.S., Training

College. Wellington.
Lomax, Major H. A., Araruhe. Arainoho,

Wanganui.
Longhurst, T. W., Scots College, Wellington.
Luke. John P., C.M.G.. M.P., Huopi Street,

Wellington.
McArthur, Captain Charles, KhandaUah.
McCabe. Ultan F., care of Richardson and

McCabe, 11 Grey Street, Wellington.
McDonald. J., Dominion Museum, Wellington.
Mackay, J. W., Panama Street, Wellington.
McKeuzie. Donald, care of Mrs. E izabeth

McKenzie, ^Marton.f
Maclaurin, J. S., D.Sc, F.C.S., Dominion

Laboratory, Wellington.
MacLean, F. W., M.Inst. C.E., Chief Engineer,
Head Office, Railway Department, Wel-
lington.
Marchbanks, J., M.Inst.C.E., Harbour Board,

Wellington.
Marsden. Professor E., D.Sc, Victoria Uni-
versity College, Wellington.t
Mason, J. Malcolm. M.D.. F.C.8., D.P.H.,

Lower Hutt.
Maxwell, E., Marumarunui, Opunake.
Maxwell, J. P., M.Inst.C.E., 145 Dixon Street,

Wellington.
Mestayer, R. L., M.Inst.C.E., 139 Sydney

Street, Wellington.
Millar. H. M.. Public Work.s Department,

Wellington.t
Mills. Leonard. New Parliamentary Buildings,

Wellington.

Moore. G.. Eparaima, via Masterton.

Moore, W. Lancelot, care of H. D. Cook.
Bank Chambers, Lambton Quay, Welling-
ton.t

Moorhouse. ^\'. H. Sefton. 134 Dixon Street.
Wellington.

Morgan. P. G., M.A.. F.G.S.. Director of Geo-
logical Survey, Wellir gton.

Moriee. Dr. C. G., 21 Portland Crescent,
Wellington.

Moriee. J. M., B.Sc, Town Hall, Wellington.

Morison, C. B., Stout Street, Wellington.

Morrison, J. C, P.O. Box 8, Eltham.

Morton, W. H., M.Inst.C.E., City Engineer,
Wellington.

Murphy, B. E., M.A.. B.Com., LL.B., Victoria
College, Wellington.

Roll of Members.

523

Myers. Miss P., B.A., 26 Fitzherbert Terrace,
Wellington.

Neill, W. T., Lands and Survey Department,
Government Buildings, Wellington.

Newman. A. K., M.B., M.R.O.P.. M.P.. 56
Hobsou Street, Wellington.

Nicol. John, 57 Cuba Street, Wellington.

Norris, E. T., M.A., Registrar, University of
New Zealand, Wellington.

Ongley, M., M.A., Geological Survey Depart-
ment, Wellington. t

Orchistun. J.. M.I.E.E., 16 Riiuu Road, Kel-
burn.

Orr, Robert. Heke Street, Lower Hutt, Wel-
lington.

Owen, A. C, Public Works Department,
Wellington.

Parr, E. J., Education Department, Wel-
lington.

Parry, Evan, B.Sc, M.I.E.E., A.M.Inst.O.E.,
Electrical Engineer, Public Works Depart-
ment, AVellingtou.

Paterson, A. J.. City Engineer's Office, Town
Hall, Wellington.

Patterson. Hugh, Assistant Engineer. Public
Works Office, Ngatapa.

Pearce, Arthur E., care of Levin and Co.
(Limited). Wellington.

Phillipps, W. J., Dominion Musemu, Welling-
ton.

Phillips, Coleman, Carterton.*

Phipson, P. B., F.C.S., care of J. Staples and
Co. (Limited), Wellington.

Pierard, A. C, Bacteriological Laboratory,
Wellington.

Pigott, Miss Ellen. M.A., Victoria University
College, Wellington.

Pomare, Hon. Dr. M.. M.P., Wellington.

Porteous, J. S., 9 Brandon Street, Wellington.
, Porter, Colonel T. W., 12 Austin Street, Wel-
lington.

Powles, C. P.. 210 Lambton Quay. Wellington.

Purnell, G. P., Public Trust Office, Wellington.

Reakes, C. J.. D.V.Sc. M.R.C.V^S., Agricul-
tural Department, Wellington.

Reid, W. S., 189 The Terrace, Wellington.

Richardson, G. E., P.O. Box 863 (11 Grey
Street), Wellington.

Roy, R. B., Taita. Wellington.*

Salmond, J. W., K.C.. M.A.. LL.B., Crown
Law Office, Wellington.

Short, W. S., Under-Secretary, Public Works
Department, Wellington.

Shrimpton, E. A., Telegraph Department.
Wellington.

Sladden. H., Lower Hutt, Wellington.

Smith, M. Crompton, Lands and Survey De-
partment, Wellington.

Sommcrville, Professor D. M. Y., M.A.. D.Sc,
F.R.S.E., Victoria University College. Wel-
lington.

Spencer, W. E., M.A . M.Sc, Education De-
partment, Wellington.

Stout. T. Duncan M., M.B., M.S., F.R.(J.S.,
164 Willis Street, Wellington.!

Sunlev, R. M.. View Road, Karori.

Tennant, J. S., M.A., B.Sc, Trainiiig College,
Wellington.

Tliomas, J., South Wellington School.

Thompson, R. D., M.A., Victoria University
College , Wei lingt on .

Thomson. J. Allan. M.A., D.Se.. F.G.S.,
Doutinion Museum. Wellington.

Thomson, John, B.E.. M.Inst.C.E., 17 Dork-
ing Road, Brooklyn, Wellington.

Thomson, R. G., 11 Austin Street, Wellington.

Thomson, R. W., P.O. Box 366, Wellington.

Thomson, W. M.. M.A.. M.B., Ch.B.. Hawera.

Tily, H. S., B.Sc, H.M. Customs, Wellington.f

Tofley, H. R., 34 Wright Street, Wellington.

Tombs. H. H.. Burnell Avenue, Wellington.

Toogood, H. F., 11 Grey Street, Wellington.

Treadwoll. C. H.. 4 Panama Street, Wellington.

Turner, E. Phillips. F.R.G.S., Lands and Sur-
vey Department. Wellington.

Uttley, G., M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S., Scots College,
Wellington.

Vickerman, H.. M.Sc, A.M.Inst.C.E.. Public
Works Department, Wellington. t

Vosseller, F. W., Baker's Buildings, Wei-
lington.

Waterworth, A., 286 Lambton Quay, Wel-
lington.

AVestland, C. J.. F.R.A.S,, Hector Observa-
tory, Wellington.f

Widdop. F. C, District Railway Engineer,
Thorndon Office, Wellington.

Wilmot. E. H.. Surveyor-General. Wellington.

Wilson, Charles. Parliamentary Library, Wel-
lington.

Wilson, F. P., M.A., Victoria College, Welling
ton

Wilson. Sir James G.. Bull's.

Woodward, Mathew F., M.A., Scots College,
Wellington.

Wyles, G. W., Assistant Signal Engineer,
Railways, Wellington.

Wjnuie, H. J., Railway Department, Welling-
ton.

Young, J. S., Railways, Wellington.

Abbott, R. H., City Chambers, Queen Street,

Auckland.
Abel, R. S., care of Abel, Dykes, and Co.,

Shortland Street, Auckland.
Adams. L.. 23 Brown Street, Poiisonby.
Adlington. Miss, Aratonga Avenue. Epsom.

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.
[* Honorary and life members.]

Aickin, G., Carlton Gore Road, Auckland.

Alexander. J.. Shortland Street. Auckland.

Alexander, L. W., " Beauvoir," Hurstmere
Road. Takajiuna.

Algie, R. M., M.A., LTniversity College, Auck-
land.

524

Appendix.

Alison, A., Devonport Ferry ('(>iii[iany. Auck-
land.
Alison, Hon. E. W., M.L.C., Devonport

Ferry Company, Auckland.
Alison, E, VV., jun., Bank of Xcw ZiaJaiid

Chambers, Swanson Street. Aucklaiul.
Alison. Ernest, Bank of New Zealand Chaii;-

bers, Swanson Street, Auckland.
Allen, John, Cheltenham Avenue. Devoupiut.
AUum, John, National Electrical and Eugir.ei r-

ing Company, Wellesley Sti-eet. Aucklard.
Ambury, S. J., Greenwood's Corner. Ui e-

hunga.
Anderson, E., Remuera Road, Remuera.
Andrews, F. N., care of Andrews and Clark,

Queen Street, Auckland.
Ardern, P. S., M.A., Remuera.
Arey, W. E., Victoria Arcade, Auckland.
Annitage, F. L.. New Z'Mlaiul Expeditionary

Force.
Arnold. C, Swanson Street. Auckl; nd.
Arnoldson, L., Quay Street, Auckland.
Arthur, T. B., Elliott Street, Auckland.
Atkinson, H., Grafton Road. Auckland.
Bagnall, H. N., Mason's Avenue. Ponsonby.
Baker, G. H., Commerce Street. Auckland.
Ball. W. T., Sylvan Avenue. Mount Eden.
Bamford, H. D., LL.D.. New Zealand Insur-
ance Buildings. Auckland.
Bankart. A. S., Strand ArCade. Queen Stivet.

Auckland.
Bankart. F. J., Shortland Stivet. Auckland.
Barr, J., Public Library. Wellesley Street.

Auckland.
Barr, J. M, Auckland Savings-bank. Aucklaiul.
Barry. S., Queen Street. Auckland.
Bartlett, W. H.. Queen Street. Auckland.
Bartrum, J. A., M.Sc.. University College.

Auckland.
Bites, T. L., " Brookfield." Alfred Street.

Waratah. Newcastle, New South Walts.*
Batger, J., Mount Eden Road. Auckland.
Beattie.Dr. R. M.. Mental Hospital. Avondalc.
Bell. T., Union Soaj) and Caudle Company.

Albert Street, Auckland.
Bickworth, J. H., P.O. Box 1018, Auckland.
Binuey. E. H., G. W. Binney and Sons, Fort

Street, Auckland.
Birch, F. W., Highwic .Avenue, Epsom.
Biss. N. L. H.. Shortland Street, Aucklaiul.
Blair. ./. M.. Market Road. Epsom.
Blomficld, E. C, Parr and Blomfield. Short -

land Street, Auckland.
Bloomfield. G. R., "The Pines." Epsom.*
Bloomfield. H. R.. St. Stephen's Avenue,

Panu^ll.*
Bloomfield, d. L. N. R.. St. Stephen's Avenue.

Parnell.
Bodle, F., N.Z. Loan and Mercantile Com-
pany, Albert Street, Auckland.
Bowyer, S. B.. New Zealand Rxpeditionaiy

Force.
Bradley, Samui'l. Onehunga.
Bradney. H., Queen Street Wharf, Auckland.
Brett. '^H., Star Office. Shortland Street.
Auckland.

Auckland.
Company.

Caiiiphell. and

; Briffault. R.. M.D.. New Zealand Expedition-
; ary Force.

Broun. Major T.. F.E.S., Chevalier of the

Legion of Htmour. Mount Albert.
Brown. E. A.. (*leave"s Buildings, High Street,

Auckland.
Bruce. W. W.. Williamson's Chambers. Short-
land Street.
Buchanan. A.. \'ulcan Lane, Auckland.*
Buckleton. H.. Bank of New Zealand. Auck-
laiul.
Buddie, C., Wyudhani Street. Auckland.
Burns, R.. C'ustoms Street, Auckland
Burt. A.. A. T. Burt and Co.. Customs Street.

Auckland.
Bush, W. E.. City Engineer, Auckland.
Butler, J., Kauri Timber Company. Custom.s

Street. Auckland.
Butler, Miss, Girls' Grammar Schoo
l>uttle. B.. Kaiapoi Woollen

I'^Uiott Street. Auckland.
Buttle. Cx. A., Hobson Buiklings. Shortland

Street. Auckland.
Buttle, .1.. New Zealand fnsurance Comjwny.

Queen Street, Au(;kland.
Cadniau. F. P.. Hoilaiul. (lillett. and Co..

Customs Street. Auckland.
Caldwell. D. R.. Cambridge,
(iampbell. J. P.. Russell

MeVeagh. High Street. Auckland.
Carlaw. ■}., 22(i Symonds Street, Auckland.
(.'ariJenter, J. M., Newmarket.
Carr. E. J., care of Carr and Haslain, Gladstone

Chambers. Quay Street. Auckland.
Carse. H.. Kaiaka, Mangonui.
Carter. M., Smeeton's Buildings, Queen Street,

Auckland.
Casey. AY.. Hamilton Road. Pousfuiby.
Caughey, A. C. Smith and Caughey (Limited).

Queen Street. Auckland.
Caughey. J. Marsden, SmitJi and Caughey

(Limited). Queen Street, Aucklaiul.
Cliauibers, S. G.. lotl A'ictoi'ia Arcade. Queen

Street. Auckland.
Chatfield, Dr. H. A.. Victoiia Street East,

Auckland.
Cheal. P. E.. Cameron Road, Renmei-a.
Cheesemau. T. F.. F.L.S.. F.Z.S., Museum,

Auckland.
Choyce. H. C. Remuera Road. Remuera-.
Clark. A., Wellesley Street, Auckland.
Clark. H. C. Wellesley Street. Auckland.
Clark. M., Wellesley Street, Auckland.
Clark, R. G.. Robertson Bros., Quay Street,

Auckland.
Clarke, S. I.. Wynyard Street. Aucklaiul.
Clay, T. B., S. Vaile and Sons. Queen Street..

Auckland.
Clayton, C. Z., Eller.slie.
Clayton, D. L.. Kauri Timber Company.

Customs Street. Auckland.
Cleave, A.. Hiuh Street, Auckland.
Clinch. .1. A.. M.A.. Training College, Auck-

lanil.
Coates. T., Orakei.
Coe, James. Mount Eden Road, Auckland.

\

Roll of Member-'^.

525

Colbeck, W. B., New Zealand Insurance
Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland.

Cole, Kov. R. H., Walford, Gladstone Road.
Parnell.

Cole, W., Mount Eden Road, Auckland.

Coleman, J. W., Lower Queen Street, Auck-
land.

Colwill, J. H., Swanson Street, Auckland.

Coombes, F. H., Victoria Avenue, Reiuuera.

Cooper, Mr. Justice, Supreme Court , Auckland.

Copeland. M., 97 College Hill, Auckland.

Cory-Wright, S., B.Sc, New Zealand Expedi-
tionary Force.

Court, G., Karangahape Road, Aucklaiul.

Court, J., Hamilton Road, Auckland.

Court, J. W., J. Court (Limited), Queeu
Street, Auckland.

Cousins. H. G., Normal School, Wellesley
Street, Auckland.

Craig, E. A., J, J. Craig (Limited). Queen
Street, Auckland.

Crompton. W. J.. 3 Mount Pleasant Road,
Mount Eden.

Crook, John, 10 Prospect Terrace, Mount Eden.

Cuff, J. C. Emerald Hill, Epsom.

Culling, T. S., Ferry Buildings, Queen Street,
Auckland.

Culpan, W., Hesketh and Richmond, Wynd-
ham Street, Auckland.

Davis, Elliot R., Hancock and Co., Customs
Street, Auckland.

Davis, Ernest, Hancock and Co.. C!ustom.s
Street. Auckland.

Dearsly, H., P.O. Box 468, Auckland.

De Guerrier, F. E.. Auckland Tramway
Company, Auckland.

Dempsey, J., Newmarket.

Dennin, John, care of Hon. E. Mitchelson,
Waimauku.

Dettmann, Professor H. S., University College,
Auckland.

Devereux, H. B., care of D. Makgill, Waiuku.

Donald, A. W.. care of A. B. Donald, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Donald, J. B., care of A. B. Donald, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Downard, F. N. R., New Zealaml Expedition-
ary Force.

Duder, R. W., Devonport.

Duncan, A., Railway Offices, Auckland.

Dunning, James, Lucerne Road, Rerauera.

Duthie, D. W.. National Bank of New Zealand.
Wellington.

Eady, A., Queen Street, Auckland.

Earl, F., K.C., Swanson Street, Auckland.

Edgerlcy, Mi.ss K., Girls' Grammar School,
Auckland.

Edmiston, H. J., Champtaloup and Edmiston,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Edson, J.. Waimarama, Tudor Street, Devon-
port.

Egorton, Professor C'. W., M.A., University
College. Auckland.

Ellingham, W. R., Customs Street, Auckland.

Elliot, G., Bank of New Zealahd Buildings,
Swanson Street, Auckland.

Elliot, W.. Bank of New Zcahnul Buildings,

Swanson Street, Auckland.
Ellis, A. F., Argyle Street. Ponson'iy.
Ellison, T., Ellison's Buildings, Queen Stii«-t,

Auckland.
Endean, J., jun., Waitemata Hot(^i, Auckland.
Entrican, A. J., Customs Street, Auckland.
Entrican. J. C, Customs Street, Auckland
Evans, E. W., care of Brown. Barrett, and

Co., Customs Street. Auckland.
Ewen. J. F. A.. Sargood. Son, and Ewen

(Limited), Victoria Street West, Auckland.
P^wington, F. G., Durham Street, Auckland.
Fairclough, Dr. W. A., Imperial Buildings.

Queen Street, Auckland.
Fallon. W.. Union Buildings. Customs Street.

Auckland.
Farrell. R.. Anglesea Street. Auckland.
P'enwick. Dr. G.. New Zealand Expeditionary

Force.
Fenwick. R., T. and S. Murrin, Auckland.
Ferguson, A. M., John Burns and Co. (Li-
mited), Customs Street, Auckland.
Fleming, G. A., Remuera Road, Remuera.
Fleming, J., 142 Grafton Road, Auckland.
Florance. R. S.. Stipendiary Magistrate, Gis-

borne.
Fowlds. Hon. G.. Queen Street. Auckland.*
Fowlds, G., jun.. Queen Street, Auckland.
Frater, J. W.. Stock Exchange. Auckland.
Frater, Captain W., Manukau Road, Pamell.
Furness, C. H.. Customs Street East, Auck-
land.
Garlick, G. ('.. Tonson Garlick (Limited),

Queen Street, Auckland.
Garrard, C. W., M.A., Education Offices, Auck-
land.
George. G., Technical College. Wellesley

Street. Auckland.
George, Hon. S. T.. St. Stephen's Avenue,

Parnell.
Gerard, E., Union Buildings. Customs Street,

Auckland.
Gibson, Noel, Dilworth Institute, Remuera.
Gilfillan. H., St. Stephen's Avenue, Pamell.
Gillett. J.. Holland and Gillt>tt. Customs

Street. Auckland.
Gillies. A. W., Glenalvon. Waterloo Quadrant,

Auckland.
Girdler, Dr., Khyber Pass Road, Auckland.
Gleeson, J. C., High Street, Auckland.
Goldie. A., Wallace Street, Ponsonby.
Goldie, D., Breakwater Road, Auckland.
Goldie, H., Breakwater Road, Auckland.
Gordon, Dr. F. W.. Hillsborough.
Gorrie, H. T., A. Buckland and Sons. Albert

Street, Auckland.
Graham, A. G.. Briscoe and Co., Customs

Street, Auckland.
Graham. G.. P.O. B'lX Itib. Auckland.
Grant. Miss J., M.A., Devonport.
Gray, A., Smeeton's Buildings, Queen Street,

Auckland.*
Gray, S., Mount Eden Borough Council

Offices, Movmt Eden.
Gribbin, G.. Nicholson and Gribbin, Imperial

Buildings, Queen Street. Auckland.

526

Appendix.

Griffin, L. T., Museum, Auckland.

Grossmann, Professor J. P., M.A., University
College, Auckland.

Gulliver, T. V., care of District Engineer,
Railway Offices, Auckland.

Gunson, J. H., Mayor of Auckland, Church
Road, Epsom.

Gunson, R. W., New Zealand Expeditionary
Force.

Haddov/, J. G., Wyndham Street. Auckland.

Haines, H., F.R.C.S., Shortland Street, Auck-
land.

Hall, Edwin, Seacliff Road. Onchunga.

Halstead, E. D., Jervois Road, Ponsonby.

Hamer, W. H., C.E., Harbour Board Offices,
Auckland.

Hansard, G. H., New Zealand Expeditionary
Force.

Harbiitt, S. J., Selwyn Road, Epsom.

Hardie, J. C, Hardie Bros , Queen Street,
Auckland.

Harding, E., Dargaville.

Hardley, J. W., Customs Street. Auckland.

Harris, Louis, Huntly.

Harvey, A., Lower Albert Street, Auckland.

Hay, D. A., Montpelher Nursery, Remuera.

Hay, Douglas, Stock Exchange, Queen Street,
Auckland.

Hayr, H. H., Union Bank Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Hazard, W. H., Customs Street West, Auck-
land.

Heather, H. D., Fort Street, Auckland.

Hemmingway, W. H., Union Buildings, Cus-
toms Street, Auckland.

Henning, G., Customs Street, Auckland.

Herries, Hon. W. H., M.P., Wellington.

Hesketh, H. R., Hesketh and Richmond,
Wj'ndham Street, Auckland.

Hesketh S., Hesketh and Richmond, Wjaid-
ham Street, Auckland.

Hill, J., care of Hill and Plummer, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Holderness, D., New Zealand Expeditionarj'
Force.

Horton. E., Herald Office, Queen Street,
Auckland.

Horton, H., Herald Office, Queen Street,
Auckland.

Hosking, J. F., Smeeton's Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Houghton, 0. v., New Zealand Shipping
Company, Quay Street, Auckland.

Howey- Walker. A., Queen Street, Auckland.

Hudson. C, Mount Eden Road, Auckland.

Hunter, Ashley, C.E., Swanson Street, Auck-
land.

Hutclunson. F. R., St. Heliers.

Ick-Hewins. Dr. T J., Marton.

Inglis, Dr. R. T., New Zealand Expeditionary
Force.

Isaacs. R. C, St. George's Bay Road. Parnell.

Jackson. J. H.. Customs Street, Auckland.

Jackson, Thornton, Jackson and Russell,
Shortland Street, Auckland.

Johnson. H. Dimbar. 151 Newton Road.

Johnson, Professor J. C, M.Sc, Litt.D., Uni-
versity College, Auckland.*

Johnston, Hallyburton, Ngatea, Hauraki
Plains.

Johnston, J. B., Stewart and Johnston, Wjaid-
ham Street, Auckland.

Kenderdine, J., Sale Street, Auckland.

Kent, B., Lower SjTiionds Street, Auckland.

Kent. C4. S., St. Stephen's Avenue, Parnell.

Kisshng, H. P.. St. Stephen's Avenue. Par-
nell.

Knight, G., Asquith Avenue, Mount Albert.

Laidlaw, R. A.. Hobson Street, Auckland.

Lamb, J. A., Arney Road, Remuera.

Lamb, S. E., B.Sc, University College. Auck-
land.

L.. B.Sc, University College,

W.. M.P., Hillsborough, One-

Lancaster, T.
Auckland.

Lang, Sir F.
hunga.

Larner, V. J., Swanson Street, Auckland.

Laurie, B. A., W. S. Laurie and Co., Customs
Street. Auckland.

Lawson, H. W.. National Bank of New' Zea-
land, Queen Street. Auckland.

Leightcm. F. W., High Street, Auckland.

Le Roy. E.. 1 8 Waterview Road, Devonport.

Lewisham, W. C, care of Robertson Bros.,
Quay Street, Auckland.

Leyland, S. H., care of Leyland and O'Brien,
Customs Street West, Auckland.

Leyland, W. B., Customs Street West, Auck-
land,

Leys, Cecil, Star Office, Shortland Street,
Auckland.

Leys, T. W., Star Office, Shortland Street,
Auckland.

Lintott, G. S., Customs Street East, Auckland.

Logan, R., Government Insurance Buildings,
Queen Street. Auckland.

Long. D.. Farmers" Freezing Companj', Queen
Street, Auckland.

Long, W. H.. Woodford Road, Mount Eden.

Longuet, A. A., Palmerston Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Lowe, Dr. De Clive. Lower Symonds Street,
Auckland.

Lunn, A. G., Ciollins Bros., Wjmdham Street,
Auckland.

McCullough, Hon W.. Thames.

Macfarlane, J. B.. Fort Street Auckland.

McFarlane, T., C.E., Coromandel.

McGregor, W. R., Univei'sity College, Auck-
land.

Mcllraith, Dr. J. W., Training College, Welles-
ley Street, Auckland.

Mcintosh, J>. 'I'., Railway Offices, Auckland.

Mackay, G. J., Queen Street, Auckland.

Mackay, J. G. H., Ellison Chambers, Queen
Street, Auckland.

]\Iackay, P. M., Wellesley Street, Auckland.

Mackellar. Dr. E. D.. Manukau Road, Par-
nell.

McKi'iizie, Captain G., Devonport.

Mackenzie, Dr. Kenneth, Princes Street,
Auckland.

Roll of Members.

527

McF^aiigliliii. 'J'. M., Hobsoii liuildiiigs. Short-
land ^^rci't. Auckland.

Maeklow, \V. C. P.O. Box 720, Auckland.

Macky, T H., care of Macky, Logan, and Co.,
Elliott Street, Auckland. "

Macmillian. C. C, Reniuera Road. Kcniuera.*

McVeagh, R., care of Russell, Cam])bell, and
McVcagh. High Street, Auckland.

Mahoney, T., Swanson Street. Auckland.

Mains, T., Tram Terminus, Remuera.

Mains, W.. Tram Terminus, Remuera.

Mair. Captain G., Whakatane.

Mair. S. A. R.. Hunterville. Wellington.

Major. C. T.. King'.s College, Remuera.

Makgill. Dr. R. H., Health Department. Wel-
lington.

Mander. F., M.P., Ranfurly Road, Epsom.

Marriner. H. A.. New Zealand Insurance Com-
pany. Queen Street. Auckland.

Marsack. Dr., New Zealand Expeditionary
Force.

Marshall, J.. Te Atahua, Remuera Road.

Ma.8on. Mrs. F., care of Bank of Au.stralasia,
Manaia.

Massey. Riglit Hon. W. F.. M.P., Wellington.

Matthews, H. B., Clonbern Road. Remuera.

Maxwell, L. G., Lower Hobson Street, Auck-
land.

Mennie. J. M., Albert Street. Auckland.

Miller, E. V'., Chelsea, Auckland.

Miller. E. W., Albert Street, Thames.

Milne. J.. John Chambers and Son. Fort
Street, Auckland.

Milne. .Miss ^L J.. Remuera.

Milne, Stewart. Milne and ('hoyce. Queen
Street. Auckland.

Milroy. S., Kauri Timber Company, Customs
Street West, Auckland.

Milsom, Dr. E. H. B.. 18 Waterloo Quadrant,

^ Aucldand.

Mitchelson, Hon. E.. Waitaramoa, Remuera.

Mitchelson. E. P., Motutara, Waimauku.

Mitchelson. R.. Dargaville.

Moirison, A. R., Palmerston Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Morrison, W. B., Brunswick Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Morton, E., Customs Street, Auckland.

Morton, H. B., One Tree Hill, Epsom.

Mulgan, A. E., Star Office, Auckland.

Mulgan. E. K., M.A., Education Offices, Auck-
land.

Mullins, P., Shaddock Street, Mount Eden.

Murray, G. T., C.E., Public Works Office,
Auckland.

Murray, G. W., Omahu Road, Remuera.

Myers.' Hon. A. M., M.P., Campbell and
Ehrenfried Comi^anj', Queen Street, Auck-
land.

Myers, B., Symonds Street. Auckland.

Napier. W.' J., A.M. P. Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Nathan, C. J., care of A. H. Nathan and Co.,
Customs Street, Auckland.

Nathan, D. L., L. D. Nathan and Co., Short-
land Street, Auckland.

Nathan, N. A., L. D. Nathan and Co., Siiort-

land Street, Auckland.*
Neve, B., M.A., B.Sc, LL.B., Technical Col-
lege, Wellesley Street, Auckland.
Niccol, G.. Customs Street West. Auckland.
Nicholson. 0., Imperial Buildings, Queen

Street, Auckland.
Nolan, H. O., St. Stephen' .-i Avenue, Parnell.
Olipliant. P., 24 Symonds Street, Auckland.
Oliver, W. R. B.,F.L.S., New Zealand Expedi-
tionary Force.*
Osmond, G. B., Royal Insurance Buildings,

Queen Street, Auckland.
Ostler. H. H.. Jackson and Russell, Shortland

Street, Auckland.
Owen. Professor G., D.Sc. University College,

Auckland.
Pacey, H. £., Hamilton Road, Ponsonby.
Parr, C. J.. C.M.G.. M.P., Shortland Street,

Auckland
Partridge, H. E., Albert Street, Auckland.
Patterson, D. B.. Ellison Chambers, Queen

Street, Auckland.
Peacock, T., Queen Street, Auckland.
Perkins, A. W., care of Dalgety and Co.,

Customs Street West, Auckland.
Petrie,D.,M.A., "Rosemead." Ranfurly Road,

Epsom.
Philcox, T., 11 Fairview Road, Mount Eden.
Philson. W. W., Colonial Sugar Company,

Quay Street. Auckland.
Pond, J. A.. F.C.S., Queen Street, Auckland.
Poole, G. S., Harbour Board Offices, Auckland.
Porter. A., F,. Porter and Co., Queen Street,

Auckland.
Potter, E. H., P.O. Box 230, Auckland.
Pountney, W. H., Fort Street, Auckland.
Powell, P. E., C.E., Ferry Buildings, Queen

Street. Auckland.
Price, E. A., Cambria Park, Papatoetoe.
Price, T. G., 109 Queen Street, Auckland.
Pryor, S. H., 2G Pencarrow Avenue, Mount

Eden.
Pulling, Miss, Diocesan School, Epsom.
Purchas, Dr. A. C, Carlton Gore Road,

Auckland.
Pycroft, A. T., Railway Offices, Auckland.
Ralph, E. v., Arthur Street, Ponsonby.
Ralph, W. J., Princes Street, Auckland.
Rangihiroa, Dr., New Zealand Expeditionary

Force.
Rawnsley, S., Quay Street, Auckland.
Rayner, Dr. F. J., Queen Street, Auckland.
Reed, J. R., K.C., " Cargen," Eden Crescent,

Auckland.
Reid, J., Alten Road, Auckland.
Renshaw, F., Sharland and Co., Lorne Street,

Auckland.
Rhodes, C, '" Ronaki," Remuera.
Richmond, H. P., Arney Road, Remuera.
Ridings. J. P . f'ollector of Customs, Auck-
land.
Robb, J., Victoria Avenue, Mount Eden.
Roberton, A. B., Heather. Roberton, and Co.,
Fort Street, Auckland.

528

Appendix.

Roberton, Dr. E.. Xcw Zealand Expeditionary

Force.
Robertson, Dr. Carrick. Alfred Street, Auck-
land.

Robertson, James, Market Road, Remuera.
Roche, H.. Horahora, near Cambridge. Wai-
kato.

Rolfe, W., Sharland and Co., Lome Street,
Auckland.

Rollett, F. C, Herald Office, Queen Street,
Auckland.

Rowe, J., Onehunga.

Russell, E. N. A., Russell, Campbell, and
McVeagh. High Street. Auckland.

Saunders, W. R., Commercial Union Insur-
ance Company, Commerce Street, Auck-
land.

Saxton, A. <'., Pym.ont. Syflney.

Scott, D. D., care of Kempthorne, Prosser,
and Co., Albert Street, Auckland.

Scott, Rev. D., New Zealand Expetlitionary
Force.

Seegner, C, St. Steiihens Avenue, Parnell.

Segar, Professor H. W., M.A., Manukau Road,
Parnell.

Shakespear, Mrs. R. H., Whangaparaoa.

Shaw. F., V^trmont Street, Ponsonbj'.

Shaw, H., Epsom.

Sinmionds. Rev. J. H., Wesley Training Col-
lege, Epsom.

Simson, T., Mount St. John Avenue, Ei^som.

Sinclair, A.. Kuranui, Symonds Street, Auck-
land.

Sinclair, (i., care of Pilkington and Co.,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Skeet, H. M., Pencarrow Avenue, Mount
Eden.

Smeeton, H. M., Remuera.

.Smith, Captain James, Franklin Road, Pon-
sonhy.

Smith, Mrs. W. H., Princes Street, Auckland.

Smith, S. Percy, F.R.G.S., New Plymouth.*

Smith, T. E., New Brighton, Miranda.*

Smith, W. Todd, Brooklands, Alfred Street,
Auckland.

.Somerville, Dr. J., Alfred Street, Auckland.

Somerville, J. M., Chelsea, Auckland.

Spedding, J. C, Market Road, Remuera.

Speight, W. J., Diocesan Office, Shortland
Street, Auckland.

Stanton, J., Fort Street, Auckland.

Stewart, D. F., care of R. S. Lamb and Co.,
32 Jamieson Street, Sydney.

Stewart, J. W., Wyndham Street, Auckland.

Stewart, John A., Kainga-tonu, Ranfurly
Road, Epsom.

Stewart, R. Leshe, Brown and Stewart,
Swanson Street, Aucklanfl.

Streeter, S. C, Enfield Street, Mount Eden.

Strevens, J. L., New Zealand Expeditionary
Force.

Suter, A., Loutis, Clonbern Road, Remuera.

Swan, H. ('., Henderson.

Swanson, \\\, Queen Street, Auckland.

Talbot, Dr. A. G., A.M.P. Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.

Thomas, Professor A. P. W., M.A., F.L.S.,
Mountain Road, Epsom.

Thornes, J., Queen Street, Auckland.

Tibbs, J. W., M.A., Grammar School, Auck-
land.

Tinne, H., Union Cluli. Trafalgar Square,
London.*

Tole, Hon. J. A.. Queen Street, Auckland.

Trounson, J., Northcote.

Tudehope, R., Wellesley Street, Auckland.

Tunks, C. J., Jackson and Russell, Shortland
Street, Auckland.

Turner, E. C, care of Turner and Sons,
Market Square, Auckland.

Upton, J. H., Bank of New Zealand Buildings,
Swanson Street, Auckland.

Upton, P., South British Insurance Company,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Upton, P. T., P.O. Box 878, Auckland.

Upton, Selwyn, Star Office, Auckland.

Vaile, E. E., Broadlands, Waiotapu.

Vaile, H. E., Queen Street, Auckland.

Vernon, W. S., M.A., University College,
Auckland.

Virtue, P., Roller Mills, Quay Street, Auck-
land.

Wade, Lieut. H. L., New Zealand Expedi-
tionary Force.

Wake, F. W., Cleave's Buildings, High Street,
Auckland.

Walker, Professor Maxwell, University Col-
lege, Auckland.

Walklate, J. J., Electric Tramway Company,
Auckland.

Wallace, T. F., Waihi Gold-mining Company,
Shortland Street, Auckland.

Ware, W., Portland Road. Remuera.

Warnock, J. A., 2 King Street, Grey Lynn.

Wells, T. U., Westbournc Road, Remuera.

White, P. C, care of S. White and Sons,
Customs Street West, Auckland.

White, R. W., Wellington Street, Auckland.

Whitley, W. S., Albert Street, Auckland.

Whitney, C. A., Colonial Ammunition Com-
pany, Aucklanfl.

Whittome, F., New Zealand Expeditionary
Force.

Williams, N. T., National Insurance Company,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Williamson, C, Commercial Bank Buildings,
Auckland.

Williamson, J. C, Chief Postmaster, Auck-
land.

Wilhamson, J. D., Rukuhia, Hamilton.*

Wilson. Andrew. District Survevor. Hansatiki.

Wilson. C. A., P.O. Box 1081, Auckland.

Wilson, F. W., Herald Buildings. Queen
Street, Auckland.

Wilson, G. A., Wilson and Canham. Ferry
Buildinsxs. Auckland.

Wilson, 11. M., Town Hall, Auckland.

Wilson, J. A., care of A. Eady anrl Sons,
Queen Street, Auckland.

\Vilson. J. M.. Portland Road, Remuera.

Wilson, John, New Zealand Insurance Build-
ings, Queen Street, Auckland.

Boll of Members.

529

Wilson, Liston, Upland Road, Remuera.

Wilson, Martyn. Roscllc, Lower Remiu'ra.

Wilson, Mrs. R. M., Russell Road, Remuera.

Wilson, W. R., Herald Office, Queen Street.
Auckland.

Wing, S., Hellabys Limited, Sliortland Street,
Aucklanil.

Winkelmann, H., Victoria Arcatle, Auck-
land.

Winstone, F. M., Claude Road, Epsom.*

Winstone, G., Customs Street East, Auck-
land.

Wiseman, F., Queen Street, Auckland.

Wiseman, J. W., Albert Street, Auckland.

Withy, E., care of Auckland Listitute, Auck-
land.*

Woledge, E. H., New Zealand Loan and
Mercantile Company, Albert Street, Auck-
land.

Wood, Right Rev. ('. J., DA)., Bishop ..f
.Melanesia, Norfolk Island.*

Woodward, W. E., Union Bank of .Australia,
Queen Street, Auckland.

Woollams, W. H., Queen Street, Auckland.

Worley, Professor F. P., D.Sc, University
College, Auckland.
i Wright, R., A. B. Wright and Sons, Com-
merce Street, Auckland.

Wyllie, A., C.E., Electrical Power Office,
Breakwater, Auckland.

Yates, E., Albert Street, Auckland.

Young, J. L., Henderson and Macfarlane,
Fort Street, Auckland.

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBim'
[* Life members.]

Acland, Dr. H. T. D., care of Hon. Secretary,
Cliristchurch.

Acland, H. D., 42 Park Terrace, Chi-istchurch.

Adams, T. W., Greendale.

Aldridge, W. G., M.A., Teclmical College,
Invercargill.

Alexander, R. E., Canterbury Agricultural
College. Lincoln.

Allan, H. H., M.A., High Street, Ashburton.

Allison, H., care of Harman and Stevens,
Cliristchurch.

Anderson. (Tilbert, care of Bank of New
Zealand, 1 Queen Victoria Street, London.*

Anderson, J. G.. Boys' High School, Inver-
cargill.

Archey, G. E., ;\I.A., Canterbury Museum,
Christchurch.

Baughan, Miss B. E., Sumner.

Beaven, A. W., care of Andrews and Beaven,
Moorhouse Avenue, Christchurch.

W'Try, R, E., 165 Manchester Street, Christ-
church.

Bevan-Brown, C. E., M.A., Boys' High School,
Christchurch.

Bird, J. W., M.A., Nelson College, Nelson.

Birks, L.. B.Sc. care of Pubhc Works De-
partment, Wellington.

Bishop, F. C. B., 10 CranmcT' Square. Christ-
church.

Bishop, R. C, Gas Office, 77 Worcester
Street, Christchurch.

Bissett, J. W., Kaiapoi Wocdlen Company,
Cliristchurch.

Blanch, G. E., M.A., Christ's College, Christ-
church.

Booth, G. T., Cashmere Hills.

Borrie, Dr. F. J., 2.36 Hereford Street. Chi'ist-
church.

Bradley, Orton, Charteris Bay.

Brent, H. C., " Aberdare Hou.se," Christ-
church.

Brittin, Guy, Umukuri, Motueka, Nelson.

Inset 17 — Trans.

Broadliead, H. D., 20 Eversleigh Street, St.
Albans, Christchurch.

Brook, W., M.A.. Education Office. (Jhrist-
church.

Brown, Professor Macmillan. M.A., LL.I).,
" Holmbank," Cashmere Hills.*

Burnett, T. D., Mount Cook, Fairlie.

Callaghan, F. R., p^ducation Office, Auckland.

Campbell, J. W., Chancery Lane, Christchurch.

Chilton, Professor C, D.Sc, M.A., LL.D.,
M.B., F.L.S., Canterbury College.*

Cliristensen, C. E., Hanmer Springs.

Clark, W. H.. 100 Bealey Avenue, Christ-
church.

Cooks, Rev. P. J., B.A., St. John's Vicarage,
Christchurch.

Cocks, Miss, Colombo Road South, Christ-
church.

Colee, W. C, M.A., Schoolhousc, Opawa.

Coles, W. R., 256 Wilson's Road, Christchurch.

Corkill, F. M., B.Sc., Canterbury College.

Dash, Charles, 233 Norwood Street, Becken-
hara, Christchurch.

Deans, J., Kirkstyle. Coalgate.

Deans, William, Sandown, Waddington.

Denniston. Sir .John, ("ashmerc Hills. Chi'ist-
church.

Dobson, A. Dudley. -M.lnst.C.E.. City Coun-
cil Office, Christchurch.

Dorrien -Smith, Major A. A., D.S.O.. Tics'.d
Abbey, Scilly, England.

Drummond, James. F.L.S.. F.Z.S., Li/ttfUon
Times, Christchurch.

English, R., F.C.S., M.I.M.E., Gas Office,
77 Worcester Street, Christchurch.

Evans, Professor W. P.. M.A.. Ph.D., Canter-
bury College. Christchurch.

Fairbairn. A., 53 Fendalton Road, Christ-
church.

Farr, Professor C. Coleridge, D.Sc, F.P.S.L.,
Canterbun' College, Christchurch.

530

Appendix.

Fere, Dr. Maud. 206 Hereford Street. Christ-
church.

Ferrar, Miss, 450 Armagh Street, Christ-
church.

Ferrar, H. T., M.A., F.G.S., care of Andrew
Anderson, St. Martin's, Christchurch.

Finlayson, Miss M. A., West Christchurcli
School, Lincohi Road, Christchurch.

Flower, A. E., M.A., M.Sc., Christ's College,
Christchurch.

Poster, Dr. A., 135 Hereford Street, Christ-
church.

It'oweraker, C. E., M.A., Canterbury College,
C'hristchurch.

Gabbatt. Professt)r J. P., M.A., M.Sc, Canter-
bury College.

Garton, John W., 61 Richardson Street,
Woolston, Christchui'oli .

Garton, W. W., M.A.. Elmwddd School,
Christchurch.

(tib:-ou. Dr. F. Gi)ull)iii-u, i2i i*apanui Road.

Gilling, W. 0. R., B.A., 206 Westminster
Street, St. Albans.

Godby, M. H., M.A., B.Sc, Hereford Street,
Christchurch.

Goss, W., Peterborough Street, Christchurch.

Gray, G., F.C.S., Lincohi.

Grigg, J. C. N., Longbeach.

Gudex, M. C. M.A.. M.Sc, Boys' High School,
Christchurch.

Hallj Miss, Gloucester Street West, Christ-
church.

Hamilton, W. M., 365 Papanui Road, St.
Albans.

Haynes, E. J., Canterbury Museum, Christ-
church.

Henry, G., care of P. Kennedy, 178 St. A.saph
Street, Chri.stchurch.

Herring, E., 46 Paparoa Street. Papanui.

Hight, Professor J., M.A.. Litt.D.. Canter-
bury College. Christchurch.

Hilgendorf, F. W., M.A., D.Sc. Canterbury
Agricultural College. Lincoln.*

Hill, Mrs. Carey, 84 Pa])anui Road. Christ-
church.

Hitcliings. F., 6'.l. Durham Street, Sydenham.

Hodgson, T. V.. F.L.S., Science and Art
Museum, Plymouth, England.

Hogg. E. G., M.A.. F.R.A.S.. Christ's College,
Christchurch.

Hogg. H. R.. M.A., F./.S.. 13 St. Helen's
Place, London E.C.

Holford, George, care of New Zealand Farmers'
Co-operative Association. P.O. Box 921,
Christchurch.

Holland, H.. lOS St. Asaph Street. Chrisl-
church.

Holloway, Rev. J. E., D.Sc, Hokitika.

Humphreys, G., Fendalton Road, Fendalton.

Ingram, John, 39 Mansfield Avenue, St.
Albans, Christchurch.

Irving, Dr. W., 56 Armagh Street, Christ-
church

Jameson, J. 0., Hereford Street, Christchurch.

Jennings, Mrs. L. S., M.A., care of Captain
Cross, 49 Crescent Road, Wellington.

Kaye, A., 429 Durham Street, Christchurch.

Keir, James, care of P. and D. Dimcan,
Christchurch.

Kidson, E. R., M.Sc, care of H. T. Kidson,
Van Dieman Street, Nelson.*

Kirkpatrick, W. D., Redcliffs, Sumner.

Kitchingman. Miss, Hackthorne Road, Cash-
mere.

Knight, H. A.. Racecour.se Hill.

Laing, R. M., M.A., B.Sc, Boys' High School,
Christchurch.

Laurenson, J. B., Hereford Street, Christ-
church.

Lester, Dr. G., 2 Cranmer Square, Christ-
church.

Louisson, Hon. C, M.L.C., 71 Gloucester
Street. Christchurch.

.Macbeth, N. L., Canterbury Frozen Meat
Company, Hereford Street, Christchurch.

McBride, T. J., 15 St. Albans Street. Christ-
church.

MacGibbon, Dr. T. A., Royal Exchange Build-
ings, Christchurch.

Macleod, D. B., M.A., B.Sc, Canterbury
College, Christchurch.

Marriner, H. J., Sumner.

Marsh, H. E., Cashmere.

Marshall. Mrs., New Brighton.

Martin, William, B.Sc, Education Omce,
Chiistcliurch.

Meares, H. O. D., Fendalton.

Morrison, W. G., Hanmer.

Moxmtford, A. V., Woolston Tanneries,
Woolston, Christchurch.

Murray, W.. " f^algownie, ' Opawa, Christ-
church.

Nairn, R., Lincoln Road, Spreydon.

Newburgh. W. S., care of Newburgh, Best,
and Co., Cathedral Scpiare, Christchnreh.

Newton, A. Wells, 58 Brittan Street, Lmwood.

Oliver. F. S., care of A. E., Craddock, Man-
chester Street, Christchurch.

Olhver. Miss F. M., M.A., M.Sc, Waimate.

Owen, H., care of Cook and Ross, Colombo
Street. Christchurch.

Page. S., P>.Sc, Canterbury College, Christ-
church.

Pairman, Dr. .1. C, Dominion Buildings,
Christchurch.

Pairman, Dr. T. W., C4overnor's Bay.

Pannett, J. A.. Cashmere Hills.

Paten^on, A. D.. 140a Hereford Street. Christ-
church.

Penlington, G., care of Education Ottice,
Christchurch.

Powell. P. H.. M.Sc, Canterbury College,
Christchurch.

Purchas. Rev. A. C, M.A., Christ's College,
Christchurch.

Purnell, C. W., Ashburton.

Rands, Henry, IM.A., Canterbury College,
Christchurch.

Raymond, S. G., K.C., Heaton Street, St.
Albans.

Reece, W., Dyer's Pass Road, Cashmere,
Christchurch.

Relph. E. W., " Chilcombe," Fendalton Road,
Christchurch.

IMl of Members.

531

Rhodes, A. E. G., B.A., Fendalton.

Rhodes, Hon. R. Heaton, M.P., Tai Tapu.

Robinson, W. F., F.R.G.S., Canterbury Col-
lege.

Ross, R. G. (address imknown).

Rowe, H. v., M.A., Canterbury College,
Christchureh.

Ryder, A. R., Boys" High School, Now Ply-
mouth.

Schneider, P., 164 Durham Street, Christ-
church.

Scott, G.. Manchester Street, Christchureh.

Scott, Professor R. J., M.Inst.C.E., F.A.I.E.F...
Canterbury College, Christchureh.

Seager, S. Hurst, F.R.I. B.A.. Cathedral
Square, Christchureh.

Sheard, Miss F., M.A.. B.Sc. Girls' High
School, Christchureh.

Simpson, Dr. W.. Latimer Sciuare, Christ-
church.*

Sims, A., M.A., care of Sim.s, Cooixa-, and
Co., Hereford Street, Christchureh.

Skey, H. F., B.Sc, Magnetic Observatory.
Christchureh.

Skinner, W. H.. New Plymouth.

Slater, Dr. F., Sumner.

Snow, Colonel, Holmwood Road, Christchuich.

Speight, R., M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S., Canterbury
College. Christchureh.

Stark, E. E.. B.Sc, P.O. Box 52(). Christ-
church.

Stead, E. F.. Ham, Riccarton.

Stevens, J. E., Deaf-mute Institute, Suinucr.

Stevenson, Dr. J., Fendalton.

Stevenson, James, Flaxton.

St. John, Charles E.. 745 Colombo Street,
Christchureh.

Stone, T., Lytfeltoii Times Office, Christchureh.

Suter, Henry, o.j!) Hereford Street, Linwood.

Symes, Dr. W. H.. (53 Worcester Street, Christ-
church.*

Symes, Lantifciril I'.. 44 .Tamos Avonuo,
Papanui.

Tabart, Miss Rose, 97 Papanui Road, Christ-
church.

Taylor, A., M.A., M.R.C.V.S., Canterbury
Agricidtural College, Lincoln.

Taylor, G. J., 440 Madras Street, St. Albans.

Temphn, J. R., 10 Wroxton Terrace, Fendalton

Thacker, Dr. H. T. J., MP., 2.5 Latimoi-
Square, Christchureh.

Thomas, Dr. W., 252 Papanui Road, St.
Albans, Christchureh.*

Thompson, Rev. A. T., M.A., B.D., St.
Andrew's Manse, Christchureh.

Tosswill, R. T., 14.S Hereford Street, t^hrist-
chiu-ch.

Tripp, ('. H.. M.A., Timaru.*

Waddell, John. 220 Armagh Street, Christ-
church.

Wall, Professor A., M.A., Canterbury College,
Cliristchureh.

Waller, F. D., B.A., West Cihristehureh Dis-
trict High School.

Waymouth, Mrs., care of Mrs. R. M. Hughes,
St. Buryan, S.O., Cornwall, England.

Weston, G. T., B.A., LL.B., 152 Manchester
Street, Christchurcli.

Whetter, Dr. J. J>., 211 Gloucester Street,
Christchureh.

Whitaker, C. Godfrey, care of Booth, Mac-
donakl and Co., Carlyle Street, Christchureh.

Whitehead, L. G., B.A., Boys' High School,
Christchureh.

Wigram, Hon. H. F.. M.L.C., 1 Armagh Street,
Christchureh.

Wild, L. J., M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S., Canterbury
Agricultural College, Lincoln.

Wilding, Frank S., Hereford Street. Christ-
church.

Wilkins. T. .1. ('., P,.A., SomorHold School,
Spreydon.

Williams. C. J., .M. Inst.C.E.. 21 Knowlos
Street, St. Albans.

Wright, A. M., F.C.S., 482 LimM,lii Pf,,-,d.
Chi'istehureli.

()TA(;() ixsrii'L r

[* Life members.]

Allan, Dr. W., Mosgiel.

Allen, Hon. Sir James, M. P., Clyde Street.

Allen. Dr. S. ('., 220 High Street.

Anscombo, E., 171 Pi'inces Street.

Balk, ()., Driver Street. Maori Hill.

Barnett, Dr. L. E., Stafford Street.

Barr, Peter, 8 Montpelier Street.

Bathgate, Alex., Neidpath Road, Mornington.*

Beal, L. O., Stock Exchange Buildings.

Begg. J. C, Fifield Street, Roslyn.

Bell, A. Dillon, Shag Valley.*

Benham, Profe.s.sor W. B., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.,

Museum.
Benson, Professor W. N., B.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.,

University.
Betts, Miss M. VV.. M.Sc, Museum.
Black, Alexander, 82 Clyde Street,*

Black, James, care of Cossens and jilack

Bowie, Dr. .J. T., 1 Elder Street.

Boys-Smitii. Professor. Cniversitv.

Braseh. H., 55 Londtju Street.

Brent, D., M.A., 19 New Street, Mussel (.ur-h *

Brown, W., 99 Clyde Street.

Browne, Robert, Technical School, Hawera.

Buchanan, N. L., 44 Bronte Street, Nelson.*

Buddie, Dr. Roger, care of Buddie and Button,

Wyndhain Street. Auckland.
Butchers, A. G., M.A., MeGlashan College.
Cameron, Dr. P. D., 145 Leith Street.
Chamberlain, C. W., 6 Regent Road.
Chapman, C. R., 1.35 Town Belt. Roslyn.
Church, Dr. R., High Street.
Clarke, C. E., 51 King Edward n<,;x,\
Clarke, E. S.. Woodhaugh.

532

Appendix.

Colqiihoun, Dr. D.. High Street.

Coombs, L. D., A. R.I. B. A., Stuart Street
and Octagon.

Crawford, VV. J., 17'J Walker Street.

Dalryniple, Rev. A. M., M.A., 65 District
Road, Mornington.

Da^ddson, R. E., Hawthorne Road, Morning-
ton.

Da vies, 0. V., 109 Princes Street.

Davis, A., Test-room, Cumberland Street.

De Beer, I. S., London Street.

Duncan, P., " Tolcarne," Maori Hill.

Dunlop, Professor F. W., M.A., Ph.D., Uni-
versity.

Dutton, Rev. D., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Cavers-
ham.

Edgar, G. C, Market Street.

Edgar, James, 144 York Place.

Farnie, Miss W., M.A., Museum.

Fels, W., 84 London Street.*

Fenwick, Cuthbert, Stock Exchange.

Fenwick, G., Olago Daily Times.

Ferguson, Dr. H. L., 434 High Street.

Fisher, T. R., Alexandra Street. St. Clair.

Fitchett, Dr. F. W. B., Pitt Street.

Frye, Charles, Gasworks, Cavei'shani.

Fulton, H. v.. Agricultural and J*astoraI
Society, Crawford Street.

Fulton, Dr. R. V., Pitt Street.

Garrow, Professor J. M. P]., l^L. B.. Victoria
College, Wellington.*

Gibbs, A., Telegrai3h Department, Auckland.

Gibson, G. W., Silverton, Anderson's Baj'.

Gilkison. R., 14 Main Road, North - east
Valley.*

Gowland, Professor W. P., M.D.. University.

Goyen, P., F.L.S., 13(3 Highgate, Roslyn.

Gray, J. A., 762 Cumberland Stivet.

Green, E. S., Education Office.

Gully, G. S., Heriot Row.

Guthrie, H. J.. 426 Moray Place East.

Hall, Dr. A. J., 36 Stuart Street.

Hamilton, T. B., M.A., B.Sc, University.

Hanlon, A. C, Pitt Street.

Hart, H. E., Royal Terrace.

Henderson, M. C, Electrical Engineer's Office,
Market Street.

Henton, J. W., 140 York Place.

Hercus, G. R.. 20 Albert Street.

Hooper, B. B., A.R.I.B.A.. A.M. P. Buildings.

Howes, Miss Edith, School, (!orc.*

Howes, W. G., F.E.S., 432 (ieorge Street.

Hungerford, J. T., Gaswoi'ks.

Inglis, Professor.). K. H.. .M.A.. D.Sc. F.I.C.,
Univ(M'sity.

-Jack, Professor R., D.Sc, I'iun crsit y.

Jeffery, .1., x^nderson's Bay.

.loachim, CJ., Randall Street, Mornington.*

Johnson, J. T., 46 Littlebourne Road, Roslyn.

Johnstone, J. A.. Driver Street, Maori Hill.

Jones, F. J., Railway Engineer's Office.

King. Dr. F. Truby,"Seachff.

Laing, John. 86 Queen Street.

Lee, Robert, P.O. Box 363.

Loudf)n, John. 43 Crawford Street.

Lowrv. J. M. Public Works Department.

Lusk, T. H., Black's Road, Opoho.

McCurdie. W. D. R.. Town Hall.*

Macdougall, W. P.. juii., 642 George Street.

McEnnis, .1. E.. i'ui)lic Works Office, Christ-
church.

McGeorge. J. ('.. Eglinton Road, Mornington.

McKellar, Dr. T. G., Pitt Street.

McKenzie, C. J., Public Works Office.

McKerrow, James, F.R.A.S., 142 Ghuznee
Street, WeUington.

Mackie, A., Test-room, Cumberland Street.

McLintock, R. A., 90 Princes Street.

McNair, J., Railway Engineer's Office.

McRae, H., 120 London Street.

Malcolm, Professor J., M.D., University.

Mandeno, H., New Zealand Express Com-
pany's Buildings.

Marshall, Angus, B.A., Technical School.

Mason, J. B., National Bank Buildings.

Melland, E., Arthog Road, Hale, Cheshire,
England.*

Milnes, J. W., 39 Lees Street.*

Morrell, W. J., M.A., Boys' High School.

Nevill, Right Rev. S. T.,'D.D., Bishopsgrove.

Newlands, Dr. W., 12 London Street.

O'Neill, Dr. E. J., 219 High Street.

Overton, T. R., Test-room, Cumberland Street.

Park, Professor J., F.G.S., University.

Parr, E. J.. M.A., B.Sc, Boys' High School.

Payne, F. W., 90 Princes Street.

Petrie, D.. M.A., F.L.S., Education Office,
Auckland.*

Philpott, A., Queen Street, Invercargill.

Pickerill, Professor H. P., M.D., B.D.S.,
University.

Poppelwell, D. L., Gore.

Price, W. H., 55 Stuart Street.*

Procter, T. R.. care of Turnbull and Jones.

Reid, Donald, jnn., Dowling Street.

Riley, Dr. F. R., Pitt Street.

Ritchie, Dr. Russell, 400 George Street.

Roberts, E. F.. 128 Highgate, Roslyn.

Roberts. John, C.M.G.. Littlebourne

Ross, H. I. M., Willis Street.

Ross. T. C., care of Ross and Glendining
(Limited).

Rutherford. R.W., Playfair Street, Caversham.

Salmond. J. L., National Bank Buildings.

Sandle. Major S. G.. R.N.Z.A. Barracks. Wel-
lington.

Sargood, Percy, " Marinoto." Newtngton.

Seott, J. H., Converter Station. Cuml)erlan<l
Street.

Shacklock, J. B.. Baytield, Anderson's Bay.

Shcnnan. Watson, 367 High Street.

Shcj.herd. F. R,, P.O. Box 361.

Shortt. F. M., care of John Chambers and
Sons.

Sim, Mr. Justice, Musselburgh.

Simpson, F. A., care of John Chambers and
Sons.

Simjison, George, 98 Russell Street.

Simpson, George, jun., 9 Gamma Street,
RosljTi.

Smith, C. S., Star Office.

Smith, J. C, 196 Tay Street, Invercargill.

Roll of Members.

533

Solomon, S., K.C., 114 Princes Street.
Somerville, W. G., 18 Leven Street, Roslyn.
Stark, James, care of Kempthorne, Prosser,

and Co.
Stewart, R. T., 21 Gamma Street, Roslvn.
Stewart. W. D.. M.P.. LL.B.. 11 Heriot

Row.
Stout, Sir Robert, K.C.M.G.. Wellington.
Tannock, D., Botanical Gardens.
Theomin, D., 42 Royal Terrace.
Thom-son, Hon. G. "M., F.L.S., M.L.C. 2(i!l

Cargill Street.*
Thompson, Professor G. E., M.A., University.
Thomson. W. A.. A.M.P. Buildings.

Vanes, R. X.. A.R.I. R.A., National Hank

Chaml>cr.><.
Walden, E. W.. 12 Dowling Street.
Wales, P. y., 2 Crawford Street.
Walker, A.. Lloyd's Surveyor, WelUngton.
Waters, Professor 1). B.. AIO.S.M., University.
Whitcombe. H.. care of Whiteombe aiid

Tombs.
White, Professor I). R.. M.A.. S.S St. David

Street.
Whitson, T. \\'., .")84 George Street.
Williams, .1.. B.Sc. F.C.S.. Technical College.
Wilson. W. S., 290 Princes Street.
Wingfield. J. E., 663 Castle Street.
I Young. Y>v. James. Don Sti-eet. Tnvci-cartiill.

HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
[* Life members.]

Anderson Andrew, Napier.

Armour. W. A., M.A., M.Sc. Boys' High

School Napier-
Armstrong, C. H, Gisborne.
Ashcroft. Mrs.. Napier.
Ashcroft, P., Napier.
Asher. Rev. J. A., Najwer.
Beattie, A. L., Napier.
Bennett, H. M., Napier.
Bernau, Dr. H. P., Napier.
Bissell, E., Port Ahuriri.
Black, G. J., Gisborne.
Blake, V. I., Gisborne.
Bull, Harry, Gisborne.
Burnett. H.. Woodville.
Chad wick. R. M.. Napier.
Chamliers, Bernard, Te Mata.
Chambers, J., Mokopeka, Hastings.
Clark, T. P., Eskdale.
t!ornford. Cecil, Napier.
Cottrell, H., Napier.
Daly. J. T., Westshore.
Dinwiddle, W., Napier.
Duncan, Russell. Napier.
Edgar. Dr. J. J., Nai)ier.
Edmimdson, J. H., Napier.
Grant, M. R., Napier.
Guthrie-Smith. H., Tutira.
Harding, J. W.. Mount Vernon, Waipukurau.
Henderson. E. H., Te Araroa.
Herrick, E. J., Hastings.
Hill. H., B.A., F.G.S., Napier.
Hislop, J., Napier.*
Holdsworth, J., Havelock North.
Humphrey. E. J., Pakipaki.
Hutchinson, F., jim., Rissington.
Hyde, Thomas, Napier.

Jacobsen, N. R., Boys' High School, Napier.
Kennedy, C. D., Napier.
Kerr, W., M.A., Napier Boys' High School.
Large. J. S.. Napier.*

Large, Miss L., Napier.

Leahy, Dr. J. P., Napier.

Loten, E. G., Napier.

Lowry, T. H., Okawa.

Maltby. C. B. R., Napier.

McLean, R. D. D., Napier.

Metcalfe, W. F., Kiritahi, Port Awanui.

Moore, Dr. T. C, Napier.

Morris, W.. Hastings.

Murray, Martin. Napier.

Newton, I. E., Napier.

Northcroft. E. F.. Napier.

Gates, William, J.P.. Tokomaru Bay

Ormond. G., Mahia.

O'Ryan. W'., Waipiro Bay.

Pallet. A. G.. Napier.

Piper. G. M., Pakowhai.

PoUock, C. F. H., Napier.

Poole, P. Loftus, Tuparoa Bay. East Coast.

Ringiand, T. H., Napier.

Russell. H. J., Napier.

Sagar, ilrs. , Napier.

Smart, D. L., Napier.

Smith, J. H., Ohig.*

Smith, W., B.A., Waipawa.

Stevenson, A.. Woodville.

Strachan, D. A.. M.A., Napier.

Stubbs, G., Napier.

Thomson, J. P.. Napier.

Tiffen, G. W., Gisborne.

Townley, J., Gisborne.

Wheeler. E. G., Havelock North.

Whetter. R. G., Napier.

Whyte. D., Hastings.

Wilhams, E. A., Napic r.

WilHams, F. W., Napier.

Williams. Yen. Archdeacon H. W., Gisborne

Wilhamson, .1. P., Napier.

Wills. W. H., B.A., Port Ahuriri.

Wilton, T. ,1., Port Ahuriri.

534

AppenrUx.

NELSON INSTITUTE.

Bett, Dr. F. A., Trafalgar Square.
Borlase, W., 96 Nile Street.
Field, T. A. H., M.P., Ngatitama Street.
Gibbs, F. G., M.A., Collingwood Street.
Graham, Mrs. C, Bridge Street.
Knapp, F. V., Alfred Street.
Lancaster, G. J., M.A., Nelson College.

iMorky, E. L., Waimea Street.

Mnles. Bishop. Trafalgar Square.

Redgrave, A. .].. Hardy Street.

Straehan, J., care of Land Transfer Office,

(Tiovernment Buildings.
Whitwell, F., Drumduan, Wakapuaka.
W'orlev. \V. F., Trafalgar Street Soutii.

MANAWATL' PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
[* Life members, f Absent on active ser^-ice.]

Akers, H., Duke Street.

Barnicoat, J. L., Union Bank.

Barnnett. Dr. E. C. Fitzherbert Street.

Batchelar, J. 0., Willow Bank.

Bayly, Mrs., Patea.

Bendall, W. E., Dairy Union.

Bennett. G. H., The Square.

Bett, D. H. B.. M.B., Ch.B.. M.R.C.S.,
L.R.C.P., Broad Street.f

Blackbounie, Rev. H. G., M.A., Vicarage.

Clausen, C. N., Rangitikei Street.

Cohen, M., Broad Street.

Collins, J. M., care of J. J. Niven and Co.

Colquhoun, J. A., M.Sc, High Scliool.

Cunningham, G. H., Department of Agri-
culture.

Daly, A. J., George Street.

Edwards. R., Duke Street.

Eliott, M. A.. The Square.

Gerrand, J. B., The Square.

Graham, A. J., The Square-

Greer, S., Broad Street.

Hankin, F. M. S., Ferguson Street.

Hannay, A., care of Manson and Barr.

Hodder, T. R., Rangitikei Street.

Ironside, Miss, M.A., High School.

Johnston, J. Goring, Oakhurst.

Larcomb, E., C.E., Roy Street.

Manson. T., Fitzherbert Street.

Mummery. W. R., F.I.C.. care of J. Nathan

and Co.
Munro, J.. Bank of New South Wales.
Murray, J., M.A., High School.
Newman. E., M.P.. Marton.
Oram. ^l. H., M.A.. LL.B., Rangitikei Street.
Park. W.. F.R.H.S.. College Street.
Peach. C. W., M.B., CM., Broad Street.
PojTiton, J. W.. S.M.. Featherston Street.*
Robertson, J.. Rangitikei Street.
Salmon, C. T., Assoc, in Eng., Rangitikei

Street.
Seifert. A., George Street.
Seifert, H.

Seifert. L., George Street.
Sinclair, D., C.E". Terrace End.
Smith, W. W., F.E.S.. Public Reserve, New

PhTnouth.
Stevens, J. H., Church Street.
Stowe. W. R.. M.R.C.S.. M.R.C.P.. Linton

Street.
Sutherland. A., Boimdary Road.
Taylor, C., George Street.
Waldegrave, C. E.. Broad Street.
Welch: W.. F.R.G.S.. Mosman's Bay, N.S.W.*
Whitaker. A., Grey Street.
Wilson. K.. M.A., Rangitikei Street.*
Wollerman, H., Fitzherbert Street.
Wright, A. H. M., College Street.
Young. H. L.. Cuba Street.

WANGANUI PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

[♦ Life member.]

AUison, Alexander, No. 1 Line, Wanganui.

Allison, Thomas, Ridgway Street, Wanganui.

Amess, A. H. R., M.A., CoUegiate School,
Wanganui.

Atkinson, W. E., Hurworth, Wanganui.

Bassett, W. G., St. John's Hill, Wanganui.

Battle, T. H., Architect, Wanganui.

Bourne, F., F.I.A.X.Z., Ridgway Street, Wa-
nganui.

Brown, C. P., M.A., LL.B., College Street,
Wanganui.

Burnet, J. H., St. Jolm's Hill, Wanganui.

Cave, Norman, Brunswick Line, Wanganui.

Cowper, A. E., Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.

Crow. E., Technical College, Wanganui.

Cruickshank. Miss, M.A., M.Sc, Girls' College,
Wanganui.

D'Arcy, W. A., 11 Campbell Street, Wanganui.

Downcs, T. W., Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.

Drew. Harry, Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.

Duigan. Herbert, Ridgwav Street, Wanganui.

Dunkley, R., F.I.A.N.Z.", Wickstead Place,
Wanganui.

Dunn, Richmond, St. Johns Hill. W^anganui.

Ford, C. R., F.R.G.S., College Street, Wanga-
nui.

Roll of Members.

535

Gibbons, Hope, Wanganui East.

Hatherly. Henry R., M.R.C.S., Gonville," Wa-
nganui.*

Hutton, C. C, M.A., St. John's Hill. Wanga-
nui.

Jack, J. B., Native Land Court, Wanganui.

Jones, Lloyd, Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.

Liffiton, e". N., J.P., Ridgway Street, Wanga-
nui.

McFarlane, D., Ridgway Street, Wanganui.

Maekay, C. E., Mayor of Wanganui.

Murdoch, R., Campbell Place. Wanganui.

Murray, J. B., St. John's Hill, Wanganui.

1 Neame, J. A., M.A., Collegiate School, Wa-
nganui.
j Poison, D. G., St. Jolm's Hill, Wanganui.
Sturge, H. E., M.A., Collegiate School, Wanga-
nui.
Talboys, F. P., Tramways Manager, Wanga-
nui.
Ward, J. T., Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.*
Watt, J. P., B.A., LL.B., Ridgway Street,
Wanganui.
! Watt, M. N., St. John's Hill, Wanganui.
Williamson, J. P., College Street, Wanganui.
Wilson, Alexander, M.U., Wickstead Street,
\Vanganui.

POVERTY BAY INSTITUTE.

Abbey, Rev. W. H. E., 251 Palmerston Road,

Gislx>rne.
Aitkin, Rev. James, St. Andrew's Manse,

(iisborne.
Beale, A. M.. Waipiro Bay.
Beere, Major A. G., Clifford Street, Gisborne.
Black, G. J., Kaiti.
Blair, James, Kaiti.

Blake, V. I., Survey Department, Auckland.
Bull. H., Gladstone Road, Gisborne.
Burnard, Ia T.. (Tladptone Road. Gisborne.
Buswell, W. H., Borough Council Office,

Gisborne.
Cuthert, A., Gladstone Road, (gisborne.
Florance, R. S., Kaiti.
Foote, F., High School, Gisborne.
Goffe, W. E., Ormond Road, Mangapapa.
Gray, Mrs Charles, Waiohika, Gisborne.
'Oreer, Miss M., Ormond Road, Gisborne.
Hutchinson, E. M., Waihuka, Gisborne.
Kenway, Howard, Waiohika. Gisborne.
Kinder, J., Gladstone Road, Gisborne.
Lees, E. L., Childers Road, Gisborne.
Lysnar, W. L., Stout Street, Whataupoko,
(Tisborne.

Mander, M. B., Riverside Road, Gisborne.

Mann, E. H., Lowe Street, Gisborne.

Maunder. G. H., Stout Street, Gisborne.

Mirfield, T., Gladstone Road, Gisborne.

Mouat. John, Gladstone Road, Gisborne.

Muir, A. L., Fitzherbert Street, Gisborne.

Oakley, Mrs., Grey Street, Gisborne.

O'Rj'^an. Wilham, Waipiro Baj'.

Parlanc, Rev. James, Stoat Street. Gisborne.

Poole, M. P., Puha.

Rowley, F. J., Ormond Road, Gisborne.

Sheppard, Mrs. W.. Whataupoko, (iisborne.

Sievwright, Miss M., Whataupoko, Gisborne.

Steele, A. H., 'J'ahunga.

Tiffen, G. W., Gisboriae.

Townley, John, Gladstone Road, Gisborne.

Tucker, H. G., Makanri.

Turner, J. C. E. Wairoa.

Wainwright, Rev.

Walkf !■. Mrs., Fox Street, Gisborne.

Ward. Rev. E.. Waerengaahika.

Williams, A. B.

Williams, Ven. Archdeacon H. W., Naurea,

Patutahi.
Wilson. Rev. G. D., Te Karaka.

536 Appendix.

SERIAL PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED BY THE LIBRARY OF
THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE, 1918.

NE^\ Zealand.

Geological Survey : Bulletins.

Houses of Parliament : Journals and Appendix.

New Zealand Ojfficial Year-book.

Polynesian Society : Journal.

Statistics of Neir Zealand.

AuSTKAIilA.

Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers : Proceedings.
Australian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-14 : Reports.
Commonwealth of Australia, Fisheries: Parliamentary Report.

New South Wales.

Agricultural Department, N.S.W. : Agricultural Gazette.
Australian Museum, Sydney : Records: Annual Report .
Botanic Gardens and Government Domains, N S.W. : Report.
Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus.
Linnean Society of N.S.W. : Proceedings.
Northern Engineering Institute of N.S.W. : Papers.
Public Health Department, N.SAV. : Annual Report.

Queensland.

Geological Survey of Queensland: Publications.
Royal Society of Queensland : Proceedings.

South Austkalia.

Adelaide Chamber of Commerce : Annual Report.

Department of Chemistry, South Australia : Bulletins.

Mines Department and Geological Survey of South Australia : Mining

Operations; G.S. Bulletins and Reports: Metallurgical Reports;

Synopsis of Mining Laws.
Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery of South Australia: Annual

Report.
Royal Society of South Australia : Transactions and Proceedings.

Tasmania.
Royal Society of Tasmania : Papers and Proceedings.

Serial Publications received by Library. 537

Victoria.

Advisory Committee : Report on Brown Coal.

Department of Agriculture : Journal.

Field Naturalists' Club of Victoria : Vtcto7-ian Naturalist.

Mines Department and Geological Survey of Victoria : Annual Report ;

Bulletins ; Records.
Public Library, Museum, and National Art Gallery of Victoria : Annual

Report.
Royal Society of Victoria : Proceedings.

Western Australia.
Geological Survey of Western Australia : Bulletins.

United Kingdom.

British Association for the Advancement of Science : Report.

British Museum : Catalogues ; Guides ; Scientific Reports of British

Antarctic Expedition, 1910.
Cambridge Pliilosophical Society ; Proceedings.
Geological Society, London : Quarterly Journal.
Geological Survey of Great Britain : Summary of Progress.
Linnean Society ; Journal (Botany) ; Proceedings ; List of Members.
Liverpool Biological Society : Proceedings.
Marine Biological Association ; Journal.
Mineralogical Society : Mineralogical Magazine.
North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers :

Transactions ; Annual Report.
Oxford University : Calendar.

Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain : Journal.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh : Notes.
Royal Colonial Institute : United Empire.
Royal Geographical Society : Geographical Journal.
Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh : Proceedings.
Royal Scottish Geographical Society : Scottish Geographical Magazine.
Royal Society of Edinburgh : Proceedings ; Transactions.
Royal Society, London : Proceedings (Series A, B) ; Pliil. Trans. (Series

A, B) ; Year-book.
Royal Society of Literature : Transactions.
Royal Statistical Society, London : Journal.
Victoria Institute, liondon : Journal of Transactions.

Belgium.
Librairie Nationale d'Art et d'Histoire : Les Cahiers beiges.

Denmark.

Acad. Roy. de Sciences et de Lettres de Denmark : Ford hand linger ;:

Memoir cs.
Dansk. Naturh. Foren., Kjobenhavn : Videnskabelige Meddelelser.
Kong. Dansk. Videnskab. Selskab. : Forhandlinger ; Skrifter.

538 Appendix.

France.

Societe de Chimie Industrielle, Paris : Chiniie et industries.
Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris : Bulletins.
Societe de Geographie : La Geographie.
Societe Zoologique de France : Bulletin.

Holland and Dutch East Indies.

Banka Tin : Jaaresverslag von de Winning.
Eijks EtliDographisch Museum, Leiden: Verslag.

Italy.

Eeale Societa Geographica, Eoma : Bollettino.

Bevista Geographica Italiana.

Societa Africana d'ltalia : Bollettino.

Societf\ Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa : Processi verbaU.

Norway.
Bergens Museum : Aarbok ; Aarberetning .

Spain.
Junta de Ciences Naturals de Barcelona : Series botanica, geologica.

India and Ceylon.

Agricultural Department, Calcutta : Report on Progress of Agriculture.
Agricultural Research Institute and College, Pusa : Report.
Colombo Museum ; Spolia Zcylanica.

Japan.

Imperial Earthquake Investigation Committee, Tokyo : Bulletin.
Imperial University of Tokyo : Journal of the College of Science.
Tohoku Imperial University, Sendai : Science Reports.

Malay States.
Malay States Government Gazette.

' Africa.

South African Association for the Advancement of Science : South
African Journal of Science.

Canada.

Department of Naval Service : Annual Report ; Tide Tables.

Mines Department, Geological Survey Branch : Memoirs ; Summary

Report ; Museum Bulletin.
Mines Department, Mines Branch: Bulletins; Annual Report: other

publications.

Serial Puhlications received by Library. 539

United States.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia : Proceedings.

Amei'ican Geographical Society, New York : Geographical Review.

American Institute of Mining Engineers : Transactions.

American Philosophical Society : Proceedings.

Californian Academy of Sciences : Proceedings.

Chicago University : Journal of Geoloqy.

Franklin Institute : Journal.

Library of Congress, Washmgton : Report.

Lloyd Library, Ohio : Index.

Minnesota University and Geological Survey : Agricultural Experiment

Station Bulletin.
Missouri Botanical Gardens : Annals.
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard: Bulletin; Anmial Report;

Memoirs.
National Academy of Sciences : P'roceedings.
New York Academy of Sciences : Annals.
Ohio Journal of Science.
Ohio State University : Bulletin.
Smithsonian Institution and U.S. National Museum : Anmial Report ;

Miscellaneous Collections ; Contributions to Knon- ledge ; Bulletins ;

Contributions from U.S. National Herbarium,.
Tufts College : Studies (Scientific Series).
U.S. Department of Agriculture: Journal of Agricultural Research;

Monthly List of Publications.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey : North

American Fauna ; Bulletins.
U.S. Geological Survey : Annual Report ; Professional Papers ; Mineral

Resources ; Bulletins ; Water-supply Papers.
University of California : Btclletin of Department of Geology.
Wagner Free Institute of Science : Transactions.

Argentine.
Acadeuiia Nacional de Giencias : Boletin.

Mexico.
Instituto Geologico de Mexico : Anales.

Peru.

Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peru : Boletin.

Hawaii.
Bishop Museum : Memoirs.

Philippines.
Bureau of Science : Philippine Journal of Science.

Tahiti.
Societe d' Etudes Oceanniennes : Bulletin.

540

Appendix

LIST OF INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH

THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE INSTITUTE ARE PRESENTED BY THE
GOVERNORS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute.

Neiv Zealand.

Cabinet, The Members of, Welhngton.
Executive Library, WelUn^ton.
Free Public Library, Auckland.

„ Christchurch.

„ Dunedin.

„ Wellington.

Government Printer and publishing stafl' (6 copies).
Library, Auckland Institute, Auckland.

Auckland Museum, Auckland.

Biological Laboratory. Canterbury College, Christchurch.

Biological Laboratory, University College, Auckland.

Biological Laboratory, University of Otago, Dunedin.

Biological Laboratory, Victoria University College, Wel-
lington.

Canterbury College, Christchurch.

Canterbury Museum, Christchurch.

Canterbury Public Library, Christchurch.

Cawthron Institute, Nelson.

Department of Agriculture, Wellington.

Dunedin Athengeum.

General Assembly, Wellington (2 copies).

Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, Napier.

Manawatu Philosophical Society, Palmerston North.

Nelson College.

Nelson Institute, Nelson.

New Zealand Geological Survey.

New Zealand Institute of Surveyors.

New Zealand Institute, Wellington.

Otago Institute, Dunedin.

Otago Museum, Dunedin.

Otago School of Mines, Dunedin.

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Christchurch.

Polynesian Society, New Plymouth.

Portobello Fish-hatcliery, Dunedin.

Reef ton School of Mines.

Southland Museum, Invercargill.

Thames School of Mines.

University College, x\uckland.

University of Otago, Dunedin.

Victoria University College, Wellington.

Waihi School of Mines, Waihi.

Wanganui Museum.

Wellington Philosophical Society.

List of Free Copies. 541

Great Britain.

Athenieum Subject Index to Periodicals, 11 Bream's Buildings,

Chancery Lane, London E.G.
Bodleian Library, Oxford University.

British Association for the Advancement of Science, London.
British Museum Library, London.

Natural History Department, South Kensington,
London S.W.
Cambridge Philosophical Society, Cambridge University.
Colonial Office, London.
Clifton College, Bristol, England.
Geological Magazine, London.
Geological Society, Synod Hall, Castle Terrace, Edinburgh.

London.
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London.
High Commissioner for New Zealand, London.
Imperial Institute, London.
Institution of Civil Engineers, London.
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, 34 Southampton

Street, Strand, London.
Leeds Geological Association, Sunnyside, Crossgate, Leeds.
Linnean Society, London.
Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool.
Liverpool Biological Society.

Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth.
Natural History Society, Glasgow.
Nature, The Editor of, London.
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist Society, Norwich.
North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers,

Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Patent Office Library, 25 Southampton Street, London W.C.
Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland,

59 Great Russell Street, London W.C.
Royal Botanic Garden Library, Edinburgh.
Royal Colonial Institute, London.

Royal Geographical Society, Kensington Gore, London S.W.
Royal Institution, Liverpool.
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
Royal Physical Society, Edinburgh.
Royal Scottish Geographical Society, Synod Hall. Castle Terrace,

Edinburgh.
Royal Society, Dublin.

„ Edinburgh.

London.
Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, London.
Royal Statistical Society, London.
University Library, Cambridge, England.

„ Edinburgh.

Victoria University, Manchester.
Victoria Institute, London.
William Wesley and Son, London (Agents).
Zoological Society, London.

542 Appendix.

British North America.

Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Ottawa.
Hamilton Scientific Association, Hamilton, Canada.
Institute of Jamaica, Kingston, Jamaica.
Natural History Society of New Brunswick, St. John's.
Nova-Scotian Institute of Natural Science, Halifax.
Eoyal Canadian Institute, Toronto.

Soutli Africa.

Free Public Library, Cape Town.

South African Association for the Advancement of Science, Cape Town.

South African Museum, Cape Town.

Khodesia Museum, Bulawayo, South Africa.

India.

Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.
Colombo Museum, Ceylon.
Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Natural History Society, Bombay.
EafSes Museum, Singapore.

Queensland.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane.

Neio South Waies.

Agricultural Department, Sydney.

Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Sydney.

Austrahan Museum Library, Sydney.

Department of Mines, Sydney.

Engineering Association of New South Wales, Sydney.

Engineering Institute of New South Wales, Watt Street, Newcastle.

Library, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Linnean Society of New South Wales, Sydney.

Public Library, Sydney.

Eoyal Society of New South Wales, Sydney.

University Library, Sydney.

Victoria.

Australian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne.
Field Naturalists' Club, Melbourne.
Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne.
Legislative Library, Melbourne.
Public Library, Melbourne.
Eoyal Society of Victoria, Melbourne.
University Library, Melbourne.

Advisory Council of Science and Industry, 814 Albert Street, East
Melbourne.

List of Free Copies. 543

Tasviania.

Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart.
Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart.

South Australia.

Public Museum and Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide.
Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide.
University Library, Adelaide.

Western Australia.
Government Geologist, Pertli.

Bussia.

Emperor Peter I Agricultural institute, Woronesh.

Finskoie Uchonoie Obshchestvo (Finnish Scientific Society), Helsing-
fors.

Liiper. Moskofskoie Obshchestvo lestestvo - Ispytatelei (Imperial
Moscow Society of Naturalists).

Kiefskoie Obshchestvo lestestvo-Ispytatelei (Kief Society of Natural-
ists).

Norivay.

Adviser of Norwegian Fisheries, Bergen.
Bergens Museum, Bergen.
University of Christiania.

Sireden.

Geological Survey of Sweden, Stockholm.
Royal Academy of Science, Stockholm.

DenJiiark.

Natural History Society of Copenhagen.

Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Literature of Copenhagen.

Gervutnif.

Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg, Berlin.

Konigliche Bibliothek, Berlin.

Konigliche Physikalisch-Oekonomische Gesellschaft, Konigsberg, E.

Prussia.
Konigliches Zoologisches und Anthropologisch - Ethnographisches

Museum, Dresden.
Naturhistorischer Verein, Bonn.
Naturhistorischer Museum, Hamburg.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Frankfort-an-der-Oder.
Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum (Stiidtisches Museum fiir Volkerkunde)

Cologne.
Redaction des Biologischen Centralblatts, Erlangen.
Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfort-am-Main.
Verein fiir Vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wiirttemburg, Stuttgart.
Zoological Society, Berlin

544 Appendix.

Austria.

K.K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie uud Brdmagneiisiiius, Vienna.
K.K. Geologische Eeichsanstalt, Vienna.

Belgium and the Netherlands.

Academie Royal des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux- Arts de

Belgique, Brussels.
La Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels.
Musee Teyler, Haarlem.
Netherlands Entomological Society, Hazepaterslaan 5, Haarlem.

Sivitzerland.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft (Societe des Sciences Naturelles), Bern.

France.

Bibliotlieque Nationale, Pans.

Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.

Societe Zoologique de France, Paris.

Societe de Chimie Industrielle, 49 Rue de Mathurins, Paris.

Italy.

Biblioteca ed Archivio Tecnico, Rome.

Museo Civice di Storia Naturale, Geiiova.

Museo di Zoologia e di Anatomia Comparata della R. Universita,

Turin.
Orto e Museo Botanico (R. Instituco di Studi Superior!), Floi-ence.
R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettre, ed Arti, Modena.
R. Accademia dei Liiicei, Rome.
Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, Naples.
Society Africana d'ltalia, Naples.
Societa Geografica Italiana, Rome.
Societa Toscana di Scienze Naiuraii. Pisa.

Spain .
Junta de Ciencies Naturals, Barcelona, Apartado 593.

United States of America.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, State of New York.
„ Davenport, Iowa.

„ Library, Philadelphia.

San Francisco.
American Engineering Societies' Library, -29 West 39th Street, New

York.
American Geographical Society. New York.
American Journal of Science (Editors), Yale University, New Haven,

Conn.
American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
Boston Society of Natural History.
Connecticut Academy, New Haven.
Department of Agriculture, Waslnnj^ton, D.C.
Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.

List of Free Copies. 546

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.

Journal of Geology (Editors), University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

Leland Stanford Junior University, California.

Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.

Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo.

Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

National Academv of Sciences. Smithsonian Institution, Washington,

D.C.
National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C.
New York Academy of Sciences, 77th Street and Central Park West,

New York.
Philippine Museum, Manila.
Rochester x\cademy of Sciences.
Smithsonian Institution, Wasliington, D.C.
Tufts College, Massachusetts.

United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.
University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A.
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
University of Montana, Missoula.
Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia.

Brazil.

Escola de Minas, Rio de Janeiro.
Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo.

Argentine Republic.

Academia Nacional de Ciencias, Cordoba.
Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, Buenos Ayres.

Uruguaii.
Museo Nacional, Monte Video.

Japan.
College of Science, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo.

Haioaii.

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
National Library, Honolulu.

Java.
Society of Natural Science, Batavia.

547

INDEX,

A U 1^ H () R S OF PAPER S.

Adkin, G. L. — Further Notes on the Horowhenua Coastal Plain and tiie
Associated Physiooiaphic Features . .

B ARTRL'M, J. A. —

New Fossil Mollusca

A Fossiliferous Bed at Kawa ( 'reek. West Coast, South of Waikato River,
New Zealand

Ben HAM, W. B. —

On the Occurrence of Two Unusual Blood-vessels in Hyht aurea
Some Earthworms from Steplien Island and D'Urville Island . .

Betts, M. AVixifred — Notes on the Auteeology of certain Plants of the Peri-
dotite Belt, Nelson : Part I — Structure of some of the Plants (No. 2)

Bt'CKMAN, S. S. — Terminology for Beak and Foraminal Develojiment in
Brachio])oda

BrRRELJ., A. W. — To what extent is Fartli-rotation the Cause of the Ocean
Cmrents ?

Carse, H. — A A'ew \'ariety of Pferis iiiacilenln

Chbesemax, T. F. —

Contributions to a Fuller Knowledge of the J'^lora of New Zealand : No. 6
Some Additions to the New Zealand Floi'a

Chilton, C. — Ceina, an Aberrant Genus of the Amphipodan Family Talitridae

Cotton, C. A. — Rough Ridge, Otago. and its Splintered Fault-scarp

Davis, W. M. — The Significant Features of Reef- bordered Coasts

Farnie, Winifred C. — The Structure of Amphihola erpnata Martyn

Farr, C. C., and others — Report on the Natural Features of the Arthur's
Pass Tunnel

FYetcher, H. J. — The Edible Fish. &.v., of Tau|)o-nui-a-Tia

(ioDBV. ]\I. H. — A Pieliminary Investigation of the Age and Manner of
(Growth of Brown Trout in Canterbury, as shown by a Microscopic
Examination of theii- Scales

Herriott, E. M. — A History of
Reference to its Botany

Hagley Park, Christchurch, with Si:)ecial

Hoi.i.owAV, J. E. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lyco-
lio'JiuDi : Part III — The Plasticity of the S]iecies

Laino. H. M. — The Vegetation of Banks Peninsula, with a Ij'st of Species
(Flowering-plants and Ferns)

Malcolm, J. — On the Toxicity of the Tutu I'ruit and Seed

3IARSHALL, P.

Fauna of the Hamjiden Beds and Classification of the Oamaru System..
(Jccurrence of Fossil Moa- bones in the Lower Wanganui Strata

PAGES

108-118

96-100
101-106

30-34
35^1

136-156

450-454

264-267
95

85-92
92-95

118-129

282-285

6-30

69-85

422-426
259-264

42-67

427-447

161-216

355-408
447-449

226-250
250-253

548

Index.

PAGKS

Marshall, P., and Murdoch, R. — Some New Fossil Species of Moliusca . . 253-258

McCuLLOCH, A. R.— A New Discoglossoid Frog from New Zealand . . . . 447-449

Mestayer, M. K. — ^New Sjjecies of Moliusca from various Dredgiiigs taken olf

the Coast of New Zealand, tlie Snares Islands, and the Bounty Islands . . 130-135

Mbyrick, E. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera . . . . . . 349-359

Park, J. — On the Occurrence of Thin Bands of Marble at South Peak, near

Hampden. Otago . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-42

Pbtrie, D. — Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants. . .. .. 106-107

Philpott, a. —

Notes on the Birds of South-western Otago . . . . . . . . 216-224

Descriptions of New Species of Lejjirloptera . . . . . . . . 224-225

Skinner. H. D. — Some Maori Fish-hooks fnjm Otago . . . . . . 267-268

Speight, R. —

Further Notes on the Geology of the Trelissick or Castle Hill Basin . . 157-160

The Older Gravels of North'Canterbui y . . . . . . . . 269-281

SuTER H. — Description nf a New Species of the Family Cerithiidae . . . . 68

Thomson. J. A. — The Geology of the :\Iirldle Clarence and Ure Valleys, East

Marlborough, New Zealanfl . . . . . . . . ' . . 289-349

Wall, A. — The Pronunciation of Scientific Terms in New Zealand, vvitli

Special Reference to the Terms of Botany . . . . . . . . 409-414

Wild, L. J. — Note on tlie Mechanical Composition of tlie So-called Loess at

Timaru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28t>-288

William.s, H. W. — Some Notes on the Languauc of the Chatham Islands . . 415-422

Marcus F. Marks, Government Printer, Wellington. — 191!;'.

MBL WHOI LIBRARY

UH ITRl 1

^1

PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

TRANSACTIONS.

Complete sets and partial sets, together with the index to the forty
volumes of the first series, can be supplied to non-members at
special prices, which will be quoted on application. Vols. 11,
12, 15 to 37 inclusive, 39, and 46 can be supplied at 5s. per volume
to non- members and at 2s. per volume to members.

Vol. 1, second edition

Vols. 2, 3, 4, and 8. (Out of print.)

The price for the other volumes will be given on application to the
Secretary. The price varies according to the number in stock.

INDEX TO TRANSACTIONS, VOLS. 1-40.

Part 1 — Authors and Titles of Papers ; Part 2 — Subject-index

Price.
£ s. d.

1 1 0

0 2 0

MAORI ART.

A few sets of the five parts of this work are in hand. For set of five 4 4 0
Separate copies of the parts can be obtained, —

Part 1 (Canoes). (Out of print.)

Part 2 (Houses) — This is a double part, and contains coloured plates

of rafter-patterns .. ., .. .. .. ..076

Parts 3, 4, and 5 ».. .. .. .. .. each 0 5 0

Specially designed^covers for the full work in maroon cloth . . 0 5 0

MANGAREVA DICTIONARY. By E. Tregeae. 1899 .. 0 l 0

LIBRARY CATALOGUE of the Joint Libraries of the
Geological Survey, the Museum, New Zealand Institute,
and the Wellington Philosophical Society.

1st edition, 1890. (Out of print.)

2nd edition, 1900 . . . . . . . . . . ..010

CATALOGUE OF THE CARTER COLLECTION OF
NEW ZEALAND BOOKS.

Catalogue and three Supplements. (Out of print.) ;

MANUAL OF THE NEW ZEALAND COLEOPTERA.

By Major Broun.

Part 1, 1880; Part 2, 1881; Part 3, 1886; Part 4, 1886; Part 5,

1893 ; Part 6, 1893 ; Part 7, 1893 . . . . . . ..110

BULLETIN; No. 1. New Genera and Species of Coleoptera.
By Major Bkodn.

'^^^^^ " (Tomenibers

0
0

3
3

6
0

P»^*" Jto members '.'.

0

0

3

2

0
0

I^a^tlll .. .. .. .. Jto members '.'.

0
0

5

3

0
6

^^^■^^^' "•• {to members i!

0
0

4
.3

0
0

^*'^*^ ••• •• '• •• 1 To members V.

0
0

5
3

0
6

BULLETIN No. 2. Revision of the New Zealand 1

Byi-rhidae. By Major Broun. ] To members

0
0

2

1

0
6

BULLETIN No. 3. Studies in the Bryology of New Zealand.
By H. N. Dixon. M.A., F.L.S. *

^*^' ^ 1 To members '.'.

0
0

2-
2

6
0

^^"^^ II "To members

0
0

2
2

6
0

[The publications of ( the Institute may be obtained on application to the
Secretary, Wellington, N.Z., or from the London agents, Messrs. William Wesley
and Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London W.C.]

PUBLISHED BY THE PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITDTE OF CANTERBURY.

INDEX FAUNAE ^ NOVAE ZEALANDIAE.

Captain F. W. Button, 8vo * .. .. .. .. ..

SUBANTARCTIC'ISLANDS OF NEW; ZEALAND. Edited
by Dr. Chas. Chilton, 2 vols., 4vo: 1 To members 1 '.

Edited by £ s. d.
.'. 0 12 6

2 2 0
10 0